Biguanide compositions and methods of treating metabolic disorders

ABSTRACT

Provided herein are methods for treating certain conditions, including diabetes, obesity, and other metabolic diseases, disorders or conditions by administrating a composition comprising a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound, e.g., metformin. Also provided herein are biguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositions, and methods for the preparation thereof for use in the methods of the present invention. Also provided herein are compositions comprising metformin and salts thereof and methods of use.

RELATED APPLICATIONS

This Application is a Continuation of application Ser. No. 16/223,002filed on Dec. 17, 2018. application Ser. No. 16/223,002 is aContinuation of application Ser. No. 15/339,346 filed on Oct. 31, 2016.application Ser. No. 15/339,346 is a Continuation of application Ser.No. 14/370,449 filed on Oct. 8, 2014. application Ser. No. 14/370,449 isa National Phase of Application PCT/US2012/046335 filed on Jul. 11,2012, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application61/649,171 filed on May 18, 2012, is a Continuation-in-Part ofapplication Ser. No. 13/345,135 filed on Jan. 6, 2012, and is aContinuation-in-Part of Application PCT/US2012/020548 filed on Jan. 6,2012. application Ser. No. 13/345,135 claims the benefit of U.S.Provisional Application 61/430,914 filed on Jan. 7, 2011. ApplicationPCT/US2012/020548 claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application61/430,914 filed on Jan. 7, 2011. The entire contents of theseapplications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

FIELD OF INVENTION

The present invention relates generally to compositions for targetedadministration of biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds to asubject, e.g., in methods of treating metabolic disorders.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Despite the longstanding, massive, effort to develop effectivetreatments for diabetes, metabolic syndrome, obesity, overweight andrelated metabolic conditions, the number of people worldwide who sufferfrom them is rapidly growing. These conditions result in numerousmedical complications, a lowered quality of life, shortened lifespan,lost work productivity, a strain on medical systems, and a burden onmedical insurance providers that translates into increased costs forall. Additionally, maintenance of health, including healthy body weightand healthy blood glucose levels is desirable.

Type II diabetes treatments in use or development are designed to lowerblood glucose levels. They include mimetics of GLP-1 (glucagon-likepeptide-1), a hormone that plays a key role in regulating insulin,glucose and hunger. Examples of mimetics are the GLP-1 receptor agonist,Exenatide (Byetta®) and the GLP-1 analog Liraglutide. Other drugsinhibit DPP-IV, an enzyme that rapidly degrades endogenous GLP-1.Exenatide is a GLP-1 receptor agonist that is degraded more slowly byDPP-IV. Liraglutide, a GLP-1 analog, is attached to a fatty acidmolecule that binds to albumin and slows the rate of GLP-1 release andits degradation. (See, e.g., Nicolucci, et al., 2008, “Incretin-basedtherapies: a new potential treatment approach to overcome clinicalinertia in type 2 diabetes,” Acta Biomedica 79(3):184-91 and U.S. Pat.No. 5,424,286 “Exendin-3 and exendin-4 polypeptides, and pharmaceuticalcompositions comprising same.”)

Metformin, a biguanide, is an antihyperglycemic agent which improvesglucose tolerance in patients with type II diabetes by lowering bothbasal and post-prandial plasma glucose. Its pharmacologic mechanisms ofaction are different from other classes of oral antihyperglycemicagents. Metformin decreases hepatic glucose production, decreasesintestinal absorption of glucose, and improves insulin sensitivity byincreasing peripheral glucose uptake and utilization. However, metforminis reported to be substantially excreted by the kidney, and the risk ofmetformin accumulation and lactic acidosis increases with the degree ofimpairment of renal function. For example, in patients with known orsuspected impaired renal function such as those with advanced age,metformin administration requires close dose monitoring and titration toprevent lactic acidosis, a potentially fatal metabolic complication.Patients with concomitant cardiovascular or liver disease, sepsis, andhypoxia have also increased the risk of lactic acidosis. Thus, metforminremains an unavailable and/or risky treatment for certain patient groupsdue to its side effects.

Until very recently, obesity treatments include two FDA-approved drugs.Orlistat (Xenical®) reduces intestinal fat absorption by inhibitingpancreatic lipase. Sibutramine (Meridia®), taken off the market inEurope and the USA, decreases appetite by inhibiting deactivation of theneurotransmitters norepinephrine, serotonin, and dopamine. Undesirableside-effects, including effects on blood pressure, have been reportedwith these drugs. (See, e.g., “Prescription Medications for theTreatment of Obesity,” NIH Publication No. 07-4191, December 2007).Surgical treatments, including gastric bypass surgery and gastricbanding, are available, but only in extreme cases. These procedures canbe dangerous, and furthermore may not be appropriate options forpatients with more modest weight loss goals.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

Provided herein are compositions having at least one biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound, including metformin, and methods oftreatment using the compositions.

In some embodiments, the compositions herein are adapted to minimize thesystemic bioavailability of the compound, e.g., reduce average systemicbioavailability of the biguanide compared to a composition having anequivalent amount of the compound formulated for immediate release. Insome embodiments, the compositions described herein can be adapted forrelease to the upper or small intestine, to the lower or largeintestine, or both. Administration of the compositions into theintestine is via any known method including oral. In some embodiments,the compositions described herein comprise a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound adapted to release a therapeutically effectiveamount of the biguanide or related heterocyclic compound beyond thestomach.

In certain embodiments, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundis selected from a compound of structural Formula I,

wherein:

-   -   R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, and R7 are independently selected from:    -   H, OH,    -   O-Rx, wherein Rx is alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkylcycloalkyl, acyl,        ester, thioester;    -   optionally substituted alkyl; cycloalkyl; alkylcycloalkyl;        heterocycloalkyl; alkylheterocycloalkyl; optionally substituted        alkenyl; optionally substituted alkynyl;    -   optionally substituted aryl; optionally substituted alkylaryl;        optionally substituted heteroaryl; optionally substituted        alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R6 and R7 may join to form a bond, together forming a ring        including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R1 and R2 may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R4 and R5 may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached.

In some embodiments,

-   -   O-Rx is selected from: O—C1 to C8 straight chain or branched        chain alkyl; O—C3 to C7 cycloalkyl; O—C4 to C8 alkylcycloalkyl;        O-acyl; O-esters; and O-thioesters.

In other embodiments,

-   -   R2, R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7 are independently selected from H,        methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl; and    -   R1 is selected from:    -   H,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C3 to C7 cycloalkyl, C2 to C6 heterocycloalkyl, where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N,    -   C4 to C12 alkylcycloalkyl,    -   C3 to C11 alkylheterocycloalkyl, where the heterocycle comprises        one or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N and wherein N        is present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea,    -   phenyl, substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl,    -   alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl,    -   pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl,        thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of which are        optionally substituted.

In certain embodiments, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundis selected from a compound of structural Formula IA,

wherein:

-   -   R1, R2, R3, R4, and R5 are independently selected from:    -   H, OH,    -   O-Rx, wherein Rx is alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkylcycloalkyl, acyl,        ester, thioester;    -   optionally substituted alkyl; cycloalkyl; alkylcycloalkyl;        heterocycloalkyl; alkylheterocycloalkyl; optionally substituted        alkenyl; optionally substituted alkynyl;    -   optionally substituted aryl; optionally substituted alkylaryl;        optionally substituted heteroaryl; optionally substituted        alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R1 and R2 may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R4 and R5 may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached.

In some embodiments,

-   -   O-Rx is selected from: 0-C1 to C8 straight chain or branched        chain alkyl; O—C3 to C7 cycloalkyl; O—C4 to C8 alkylcycloalkyl;        O-acyl; O-esters; and O-thioesters.

In other embodiments,

-   -   R2, R3, R4 and R5 are independently selected from H, methyl,        ethyl, propyl or isopropyl; and    -   R1 is selected from:    -   H,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C3 to C7 cycloalkyl, C2 to C6 heterocycloalkyl, where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N,    -   C4 to C12 alkylcycloalkyl,    -   C3 to C11 alkylheterocycloalkyl, where the heterocycle comprises        one or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N and wherein N        is present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea,    -   phenyl, substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl,    -   alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl,    -   pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl,        thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of which are        optionally substituted.

In other embodiments, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compound isselected from a compound of structural Formula II,

wherein:

-   -   R1, R2, R4, and R5, are independently selected from:    -   H, OH,    -   O-Rx, wherein Rx is alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkylcycloalkyl, acyl,        ester, thioester;    -   optionally substituted alkyl; cycloalkyl; alkylcycloalkyl;        heterocycloalkyl; alkylheterocycloalkyl; optionally substituted        alkenyl; optionally substituted alkynyl;    -   optionally substituted aryl; optionally substituted alkylaryl;        optionally substituted heteroaryl; optionally substituted        alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R1 and R2 may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R4 and R5 may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached;

R8 is selected from:

-   -   H; optionally substituted alkynyl; cycloalkyl; alkylcycloalkyl;        heterocycloalkyl; alkylheterocycloalkyl; optionally substituted        aryl; optionally substituted alkylaryl (e.g., alkylphenyl,        alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl, alkylsubstituted        naphthyl); optionally substituted heteroaryl; optionally        substituted alkylheteroaryl; and —NRaRb    -   wherein Ra and Rb are independently selected from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkyl; optionally substituted alkenyl;        optionally substituted alkynyl; cycloalkyl; alkylcycloalkyl;        heterocycloalkyl; alkylheterocycloalkyl; optionally substituted        aryl, optionally substituted alkylaryl, optionally substituted        heteroaryl, and optionally substituted alkylheteroaryl.

In some embodiments,

-   -   O-Rx is selected from: O—C1 to C8 straight chain or branched        chain alkyl; O—C3 to C7 cycloalkyl; O—C4 to C8 alkylcycloalkyl;        O-acyl; O-esters; and O-thioesters.

In other embodiments,

-   -   R2, R3, and R4 are independently selected from H, methyl, ethyl,        propyl or isopropyl;    -   R5 is selected from H, CH3, lower alkyl, NH2, NHCH3, N(CH3)2,        NH-alkyl, N(alkyl)2; and    -   R1 is selected from:    -   H,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, N1H2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C3 to C7 cycloalkyl, C2 to C6 heterocycloalkyl, where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N,    -   C4 to C12 alkylcycloalkyl,    -   C3 to C11 alkylheterocycloalkyl, where the heterocycle comprises        one or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N and wherein N        is present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea,    -   phenyl, substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl,    -   alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl,    -   pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl,        thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of which are        optionally substituted.

In some embodiments, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compound isselected from a compound of structural Formula III,

wherein:

-   -   R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R9, and R10, are independently selected        from:    -   H, OH,    -   O-Rx, wherein Rx is alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkylcycloalkyl, acyl,        ester, thioester;    -   optionally substituted alkyl; cycloalkyl; alkylcycloalkyl;        heterocycloalkyl; alkylheterocycloalkyl; optionally substituted        alkenyl; optionally substituted alkynyl;    -   optionally substituted aryl; optionally substituted alkylaryl;        optionally substituted heteroaryl; optionally substituted        alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R1 and R2 may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R4 and R5 may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached.

In some embodiments,

-   -   O-Rx is selected from: 0-C1 to C8 straight chain or branched        chain alkyl; O—C3 to C7 cycloalkyl; O—C4 to C8 alkylcycloalkyl;        O-acyl; O-esters; and O-thioesters.

In some embodiments,

-   -   R2, R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7 are independently selected from H,        methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl; and R1 is selected from:    -   H,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C3 to C7 cycloalkyl, C2 to C6 heterocycloalkyl, where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N,    -   C4 to C12 alkylcycloalkyl,    -   C3 to C11 alkylheterocycloalkyl, where the heterocycle comprises        one or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N and wherein N        is present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea,    -   aryl, phenyl, substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted        naphthyl,    -   alkylaryl, alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl,    -   heteroaryl, pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl,        isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of        which are optionally substituted,    -   alkylheteroaryl, pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrrolyl,        oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of        which are optionally substituted.

In some embodiment, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compound isselected from a compound of structural Formula IV,

wherein:

-   -   wherein R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8 and R9 are independently selected        from H, methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl;    -   and wherein R1 and R2, and are independently selected from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkyl; cycloalkyl; alkylcycloalkyl;        heterocycloalkyl; alkylheterocycloalkyl; optionally substituted        alkenyl; optionally substituted alkynyl;    -   optionally substituted aryl; optionally substituted alkylaryl;        optionally substituted heteroaryl; optionally substituted        alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R1 and R2 may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached.

In one embodiment,

-   -   O-Rx is selected from: O—C1 to C8 straight chain or branched        chain alkyl; O—C3 to C7 cycloalkyl; O—C4 to C8 alkylcycloalkyl;        O-acyl; O-esters; and O-thioesters.

In another embodiment,

-   -   R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, R7, R8 and R9 are independently selected        from H or methyl; and    -   R1 is selected from:    -   H,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C1 to C12 straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally        hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl,    -   C3 to C7 cycloalkyl, C2 to C6 heterocycloalkyl, where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N,    -   C4 to C12 alkylcycloalkyl,    -   C3 to C11 alkylheterocycloalkyl, where the heterocycle comprises        one or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N and wherein N        is present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea,    -   phenyl, substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl,    -   alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl,    -   pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl,        thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of which are        optionally substituted.

In some embodiments, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compound ismetformin or a salt thereof. In another embodiment, the biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound is metformin hydrochloride.

In the compositions and methods disclosed herein, the biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound may comprise an asymmetric center orcenters and forms a composition of a racemic mixture, adiastereoisomeric mixture, a single enantiomer, an enantiomericdiastereomer, a meso compound, a pure epimer, or a mixture of epimersthereof, etc. In other embodiments, the biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound comprises one or more double bonds, wherein thecompound is a cis/trans, E/Z mixture or an E or Z geometric isomerthereof. The biguanide or related heterocyclic compound may be a saltselected from hydrochloride, hydrobromide, acetate, propionate,butyrate, sulfate, hydrogen sulfate, sulfite, carbonate, hydrogencarbonate, phosphate, phosphinate, oxalate, hemi-oxalate, malonate,hemi-malonate, fumarate, hemi-fumarate, maleate, hemi-maleate, citrate,hemi-citrate, tartrate, hemi-tartrate, aspartate and glutamate.

In the methods disclosed herein, the biguanide or related heterocycliccompound may be formulated as a composition comprising the components A,B, and C, wherein:

-   -   A is the protonated form of a natural or unnatural amino acid;    -   B is the dianion of an acid; and    -   C is the protonated form of any the biguanide or related        heterocyclic compound.

In some embodiments,

-   -   A is the protonated form of a natural amino acid selected from        alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, arginine, glycine,        glutamine, glutamic acid lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine,        serine, threonine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, histidine,        methionine, proline, cysteine, and cystine; and    -   B is the dianion of an acid selected from oxalic, malonic,        citric, maleic, fumaric, tartaric, aspartic, and glutamic acid.    -   C is the protonated form of the biguanide or related        heterocyclic compound.

In other embodiments, the therapeutically effective amount of biguanideor related heterocyclic compound, e.g., metformin or salt thereof, isabout 1 mg to about 2000 mg. In yet other embodiments, thetherapeutically effective amount of metformin or salt thereof is about10 mg to about 1500 mg. In further embodiments, the therapeuticallyeffective amount of biguanide or related heterocyclic compound, e.g.,metformin or salt thereof, is about 50 mg to about 1000 mg. In yetfurther embodiments, the therapeutically effective amount of biguanideor related heterocyclic compound, e.g., metformin or salt thereof, isabout 100 mg to about 500 mg.

In preferred embodiments, the compositions described herein are adaptedto reduce or minimize systemic bioavailability of the compound, e.g.,minimize the circulating plasma concentration of the biguanide compoundin the patient and/or reduce the average systemic bioavailability of thecompound, e.g., when compared to a immediate release composition havingan equivalent amount of the compound. In some embodiments, the minimizedcirculating plasma concentrations is below about 5 μg/mL, 4 μg/mL, 3μg/mL, 2 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL, 0.5 μg/mL or 0.24 μg/mL in subjects with normalor impaired renal function. In other embodiments, an adapted compoundcomposition has a relative bioavailability of 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%,20% or 10% compared to an immediate release composition having the sameamount of the compound.

In some embodiments, the compositions herein are adapted to release atherapeutically effective amount of a biguanide or related heterocycliccompound to one or more regions of the intestine.

In some embodiments, the compositions are adapted to release in theduodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, colon and/or rectum. In otherembodiments, the compositions are adapted to release in the jejunum,ileum, caecum, colon and/or rectum. In some embodiments, the compositionis formulated for release in the lower intestine. In furtherembodiments, the composition is formulated for release in the upperintestine. In still further embodiments, the composition is formulatedfor release in the upper intestine and lower intestine.

In one embodiment, a composition releases a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound at an onset of about 75 minutes, about 105 toabout 135 minutes, about 165 to about 195 minutes or about 225 to about255 minutes, or a combination of times thereof following oraladministration to a subject.

In other embodiments, a composition releases a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound at an onset of about pH 5.0, about pH 5.5, aboutpH 6.0, about pH 6.5, about pH 7.0, or combination thereof followingoral administration to a subject.

Also provided herein are compositions comprising biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds that further comprise one or more chemosensoryreceptor ligands is selected from a sweet receptor ligand, an umamireceptor ligand, a fat receptor ligand, a bile acid receptor ligand, abitter receptor ligand, or any combination thereof. In some embodiments,the composition further comprises a sweet receptor ligand. In otherembodiments, the composition further comprises an umami receptor ligand.In other embodiments, the composition further comprises a sweet receptorligand and an umami receptor ligand.

Sweet receptor ligands include glucose, sucralose, aspartame,Stevioside, Rebaudioside, Neotame, acesulfame-K, and saccharin. Umamireceptor ligands include glutamate salts, glutamines, acetyl glycines,or aspartame. Fat receptor ligands include linoleic acids, oleic acids,palmitates, oleoylethanolamides, mixed fatty acid emulsion, omega-3fatty acids and N-acylphosphatidylethanolamine (NAPE). Sour receptorligands include citric acid and hydroxycitric acid. Bile acids includedeoxycholic acids, taurocholic acids and chenodeoxycholic acids. Incertain embodiments, the chemosensory receptor ligand is nonmetabolized.In certain embodiments, the chemosensory receptor ligand is an agonist.In certain embodiments, the chemosensory receptor ligand is an enhancer.

Accordingly, also provided herein are compositions comprising biguanideor related heterocyclic compounds that further comprise a chemosensoryreceptor enhancer selected from the group consisting of a sweet receptorenhancer, a bitter receptor enhancer, an umami receptor enhancer, a fatreceptor enhancer, a sour receptor enhancer and a bile acid receptorenhancer. In certain embodiments, the chemosensory receptor enhancer isan umami receptor enhancer that enhances the effect of food on umamireceptors in the intestine.

The compositions described herein can be formulated with an entericcoating. In another aspect, the compositions described herein can beformulated with a modified release system. In yet another aspect, thecompositions described herein can be formulated with a timed releasesystem. In a further aspect, the compositions described herein can beformulated with a modified release and enteric coating. In yet a furtheraspect, the compositions described herein can be formulated with a timedrelease and enteric coating.

Provided herein is a method of treating certain conditions in a subjectcomprising administering a composition comprising a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound described herein to the subject.

In one aspect, the method comprises administering at least one biguanideor related heterocyclic compound selected from any of the compoundsdescribed herein to the subject and wherein the composition is adaptedto minimize the systemic bioavailability of the compound and/or releasea therapeutically effective amount of a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound to one or more regions of the intestines.

In preferred embodiments, said administration results in a reduced orminimized systemic bioavailability of the compound, e.g., a minimizedcirculating plasma concentration of the biguanide compound in thepatient and/or reduced average systemic bioavailability of the compound,e.g., when compared to a immediate release composition having anequivalent amount of the compound. In some embodiments, the minimizedcirculating plasma concentration is below about 5 μg/mL, 4 μg/mL, 3μg/mL, 2 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL, 0.5 μg/mL or 0.25 μg/mL in subjects with normalor impaired renal function. In other embodiments, the compound has 60%,50%, 40%, 30%, or 20% less relative bioavailability compared to animmediate release composition having the same amount of the compound.

Provided herein is a method of treating certain conditions byadministering a composition having at least one biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound to the lower intestine of a subject. In anotherembodiment, the composition comprising at least one biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound is administered to the upper intestine of asubject. In yet another embodiment, the composition comprising at leastone biguanide or related heterocyclic compound is administered to theupper intestine and lower intestine of a subject. In certain instances,the biguanide or related heterocyclic compound in the upper intestineand lower intestine is the same biguanide or related heterocycliccompound. In certain instances, a biguanide or related heterocycliccompound in the upper intestine and lower intestine are different.

Provided herein is a method of treating certain conditions byadministering a composition having at least one biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound to the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, colonand/or rectum. In other embodiments, the composition comprising at leastone biguanide or related heterocyclic compound is administered to theduodenum of a subject. In another embodiment, the composition comprisingat least one biguanide or related heterocyclic compound is administeredto the jejunum of a subject. In another embodiment, the compositioncomprising at least one biguanide or related heterocyclic compound isadministered to the ileum of a subject. In another embodiment, thecomposition comprising at least one biguanide or related heterocycliccompound is administered to the caecum of a subject. In anotherembodiment, the composition comprising at least one biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound is administered to the colon of a subject. Inanother embodiment, the composition comprising at least one biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound is administered to the rectum of asubject. In another embodiment, the composition comprising at least onebiguanide or related heterocyclic compound is administered to theduodenum, jejunum, ileum, caecum, colon and/or rectum of a subject.

Provided herein is a method of treating certain conditions byadministering one or more biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcompositions that release at an onset about 75 minutes, 105 to about 135minutes, about 165 to about 195 minutes, about 225 to about 255 minutesor a combination of times thereof following oral administration to asubject.

Provided herein is a method of treating certain conditions byadministering one or more biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcompositions that have an onset of about 120 minutes, about 180 minutes,about 240 minutes or a combination of times thereof following oraladministration to a subject. In one embodiment, the composition releasesat an onset of about 120 minutes following administration to a subject.In one embodiment, the composition releases at an onset of about 180minutes following administration to a subject. In one embodiment, thecomposition releases at an onset of about 240 minutes followingadministration to a subject. In one embodiment, the composition releasesat an onset of about 120 minutes, about 180 minutes and about 240minutes following oral administration to a subject

In certain embodiments, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcomposition(s) have an onset of release at about pH 5.5, about pH 6.0,about pH 6.5, and/or about pH 7.0.

In certain embodiments, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcompositions release at an onset of two different pH ranges, whereinsaid two pH ranges are selected from about pH 5.0 to about pH 6.0, aboutpH 6.0 to about pH 7.0 and about pH 7.0 to about pH 8.0.

Provided herein are methods of modulating circulating concentrations ofone or more hormones, including but not limited to GLP-1, GLP-2, GIP,oxyntomodulin, PYY, CCK, glycentin, insulin, glucagon, ghrelin, amylin,insulin, C-peptide and uroguanylin, by administering a compositioncomprising at least one biguanide or related heterocyclic compounddescribed herein to a subject. Provided herein are methods of modulatingthe hormonal profile of lower intestine by administering a compositionhaving at least one biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to thelower intestine of a subject. In one embodiment, the hormonal profile isthat of GLP-1, oxyntomodulin, and PYY.

Provided herein are methods of modulating the hormonal profile of upperintestine by administering a composition having at least one biguanideor related heterocyclic compound to the upper intestine of a subject. Inone embodiment, the hormonal profile is that of GLP-1, GLP-2,oxyntomodulin, PYY, GIP, C-peptide, glucagon, insulin, CCK, or anycombination thereof.

Further provided herein are methods to sensitize lower intestinalchemosensory receptors by stimulating bitter receptors in the upperintestine with a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound.

Provided herein are methods of treating certain conditions with thebiguanides or related heterocyclic compound compositions describedherein. These conditions include metabolic syndrome, diabetes type I,diabetes type II, obesity, binge eating, undesired food cravings, foodaddiction, a desire to reduce food intake or to lose weight or maintainweight loss, desire to maintain healthy weight, desire to maintainnormal blood glucose metabolism, anorexia, pre-diabetes, glucoseintolerance, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), impaired fastingglycemia (IFG), post-prandial hyperglycemia, accelerated gastricemptying, dumping syndrome, delayed gastric emptying, dyslipidemia,post-prandial dyslipidemia, hyperlipidemia, hypertriglyceridemia, posthypertriglyceridemia, insulin resistance, bone loss disorders,osteopenia, osteoporosis, muscle wasting disease, muscle degenerativedisorders, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), non-alcoholic fatty liverdisease (NAFL), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH), immune disordersof the gut, (e.g., celiac disease), bowel irregularity, irritable bowelsyndrome (IBS), inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), including, e.g.,ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, short bowel syndrome and peripheralneuropathy, e.g., diabetic neuropathy. In some embodiments, thecondition is obesity. In certain embodiments, the condition is diabetes.In further embodiments, the subject has undergone bariatric surgery. Inyet other embodiments, methods provided herein further includeadministering a drug for diabetes or obesity.

In certain embodiments, these conditions include sadness, stress, grief,anxiety, anxiety disorder (e.g., generalized anxiety disorder,obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder, post-traumatic stressdisorder or social anxiety disorder or a mood disorder (e.g.,depression, bipolar disorder, dysthymic disorder and cyclothymicdisorder). In certain embodiments, the compositions described herein maybe used for inducing feelings of happiness, well-being or contentment.

Additionally, the compositions described herein may be used for thedietary management of the conditions listed above.

Also provided herein are methods for treating a disease, disorder ordefect in energy homeostasis in a subject comprising administering acomposition described herein. In one aspect, the composition is adaptedto release a therapeutically effective amount of a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound to one or more regions of the intestine.

Also provided herein are methods for treating overweight in a subjectcomprising administering a composition described herein. In one aspect,the composition is adapted to release a therapeutically effective amountof a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to one or more regionsof the intestine.

Also provided herein are methods for treating obesity in a subjectcomprising administering a composition described herein. In one aspect,the composition is adapted to release a therapeutically effective amountof a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to one or more regionsof the intestine.

Also provided herein are methods for reducing food intake in a subjectcomprising administering a composition described herein. In one aspect,the composition is adapted to release a therapeutically effective amountof a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to one or more regionsof the intestine.

Also provided, herein are methods for treating type II diabetes in asubject comprising administering a composition described herein. In oneaspect, the composition is adapted to release a therapeuticallyeffective amount of a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to oneor more regions of the intestine.

Also provided herein are methods for maintaining healthy body weight ina subject comprising administering a composition described herein. Inone aspect, the composition is adapted to release a therapeuticallyeffective amount of a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to oneor more regions of the intestine.

Also provided herein are methods for treating pre-diabetes in a subjectcomprising administering a composition described herein. In one aspect,the composition is adapted to release a therapeutically effective amountof a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to one or more regionsof the intestine.

Also provided herein are methods for increasing GLP-1 concentration in asubject comprising administering a composition described herein. In oneaspect, the composition is adapted to release a therapeuticallyeffective amount of a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to oneor more regions of the intestine.

Also provided, herein are methods for increasing PYY concentration in asubject comprising administering a composition described herein. In oneaspect, the composition is adapted to release a therapeuticallyeffective amount of a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to oneor more regions of the intestine.

In some embodiments of the methods provided herein, prior toadministration of the composition, the subject is prescreened forendogenous chemosensory receptor levels and types for use in adjustingthe amount of the composition for administration.

The methods disclosed herein may also further comprise administration ofa DPP-IV inhibitor, a chemosensory receptor ligand (e.g., a sweetreceptor ligand, bitter receptor ligand, umami receptor ligand, sourreceptor ligand, fat receptor ligand or bile acid receptor ligand, orcombination thereof, a chemosensory receptor antagonist (e.g.,lactisole), a chemosensory receptor enhancer), an anti-obesity oranti-diabetes agent.

Also provided herein are pharmaceutical dosage forms comprising (a) a pH6.5 enterically coated immediate release component comprising metforminhydrochloride and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient; and (b) a pH6.5 enterically coated extended release component comprising metforminhydrochloride and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient; and whereinthe combined amount of metformin from both components is less than 400mg and wherein the metformin has sub-therapeutic plasma AUC andsub-therapeutic plasma Cmax.

In some embodiments, the proportion of metformin hydrochloride in theimmediate release component to the metformin hydrochloride in thedelayed release component is about 20/80, 30/70, 35/65, 40/60, 45/55 or50/50. In other embodiments, the dosage form exhibits a dissolutionrelease profile of 80-100% amount of metformin hydrochloride after 75minutes after oral administration.

In some embodiments, the plasma AUC and plasma Cmax resulting fromadministration of the dosage form is 50% or less than the plasma AUC andCmax resulting from administration of a single dose of GLUMETZA 500 mg.

In some embodiments, the dosage form further comprises a DPP-IVinhibitor in (a), (b) or both. In other embodiments, the dosage formfurther comprises an antidiabetic or antiobesity agent.

In some embodiments, the dosage form further comprises (c) an immediaterelease component comprising metformin hydrochloride. In some instances,the (c) immediate release component has a pH 5.0 enteric coating. Insome instances, the combined amount of metformin from components (a)-(c)is less than 600 mg.

In some embodiments, the excipient in the extended release component isselected from the group consisting of ethylcellulose,hydroxypropylmethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose,polyvinylpyrrolidone, xanthan gum, sodium alginate, polysorbate-80 andmixtures thereof.

In some embodiments, the combined amount of metformin hydrochloride isabout 250 mg.

In some embodiments, the dosage form is a bi-layer tablet. In otherembodiments, the dosage form is a capsule with the two components asencapsulated mini-tablets.

Also provided herein are pharmaceutical dosage forms comprising (a) a pH6.5 enterically coated immediate release component comprising metforminhydrochloride and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient; and (b) a pH6.5 enterically coated extended release component comprising metforminhydrochloride and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient; and whereinthe metformin hydrochloride has reduced average systemicbioavailability.

In some embodiments, the average systemic bioavailability is less thanthe average systemic bioavailability of an immediate release metforminformulation having an equivalent amount of metformin. In otherembodiments, the average systemic bioavailability is less than 15%.

In some embodiments, the combined amount of metformin hydrochloride isless than 400 mg.

INCORPORATION BY REFERENCE

All publications, patents, and patent applications mentioned in thisspecification are herein incorporated by reference to the same extent asif each individual publication, patent, or patent application wasspecifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE FIGURES

FIG. 1 shows the design of the study described in Example 5.

FIG. 2 shows the events during the treatment period of the studydescribed in Example 5.

FIG. 3 shows the plasma concentration of Metformin (●) and Re-Metformin(▪) (x-axis; ng/mL) as a function of time (y-axis; min) after ingestionat t=−240 and after a meal at t=0 min.

FIG. 4A shows the plasma concentration of PYY (x-axis;pg/mL) as afunction of time (y-axis; min) in subjects at baseline (□,∘) or afteringestion of either Metformin (●) or Re-Metformin (▪) and after a mealat t=0 min. FIG. 4B shows the plasma concentration of active GLP-1(x-axis; GLP-1A pmol/L) as a function of time (y-axis; min) in subjectsat baseline (□,∘) or after ingestion of either Metformin (●) orRe-Metformin (▪) and after a meal at t=0 min. FIG. 4C shows the plasmaconcentration of total GLP-1 (x-axis; GLP-1T pmol/L) as a function oftime (y-axis; min) in subjects at baseline (□,∘) or after ingestion ofeither Metformin (●) or Re-Metformin (▪) and after a meal at t=0 min.For FIGS. 4A-4C, percent increase in Abs AUC is compared to baselinevalues.

FIG. 5A shows the plasma concentration of glucose (x-axis;mg/dL) as afunction of time (y-axis; min) in subjects at baseline (□,∘) or afteringestion of either Metformin (●) or Re-Metformin (▪) and after a mealat t=0 min. FIG. 5B shows the plasma concentration of insulin (x-axis;pmol/L) as a function of time (y-axis; min) in subjects at baseline(□,∘) or after ingestion of either Metformin (●) or Re-Metformin (▪) andafter a meal at t=0 min. For FIGS. 5A-5B, percent decrease in Abs AUC iscompared to baseline values.

FIG. 6 is a graph that shows the area under the curve of PYY (x-axis;log transformed) as a function of the area under the curve of metformin(ng/mL*min) after ingestion of Metformin (®) and Re-Metformin (▪).

FIG. 7A shows the plasma concentration of Metformin (●) and Re-Metformin(▪) (x-axis; ng/mL) as a function of time (y-axis; min) after ingestionat t=−240 and after a meal at t=0 min. FIG. 7B shows the plasmaconcentration of PYY (x-axis;pg/mL) as a function of time (y-axis; min)in subjects at baseline (□,∘) or after ingestion of either Metformin (●)or Re-Metformin (▪) and after a meal at t=0 min.

FIG. 8 is a flow diagram of a 12-week, randomized, double-blind,placebo-controlled, parallel-group, multicenter study to determine thesafety and efficacy of twice daily administration of Re-Metformin insubjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to methods and compositions for treatingcertain conditions, for example, metabolic conditions including obesityand diabetes, using a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound orcombination of biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds. Biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound(s) modulate the synthesis, secretionand/or storage of hormones, e.g., GLP-1, GLP-2, oxyntomodulin, PYY, GIP,insulin, C-peptide, glycentin, glucagon, amylin, ghrelin, uroguanylinand/or CCK that are key regulators of energy and metabolic processessuch as glucose metabolism.

The present embodiments described herein additionally contemplatetargeting administration of biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundsto specific sites throughout the gut. Enteroendocrine cells, e.g., Lcells, K cells, and I cells, that each secrete a different set ofmetabolic hormones in response to chemosensory stimulation, occurthroughout the length of the intestine. The concentrations andproportions of these enteroendocrine cell types are different in thevarious intestinal segments, and, as noted above, each cell type has adifferent metabolic hormone expression profile. Targeted administrationof the compositions of the invention to specific intestinal segments,for example, through the use of formulations designed for release withinone or more desired segments of the intestine, provides an additionallevel of control over the effect of such compositions, e.g., in themodulation of hormones involved in metabolism.

The present embodiments described herein thus include a novel approachto treating certain conditions by, for example, modulating the secretionof metabolic hormones through enteroendocrine chemosensory receptoractivation using biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds. Theembodiments further include the capability to select combinationtherapies tailored to the specific needs of individuals having varyinghormone profiles.

A biguanide or related heterocyclic compound may be used in combinationwth one or more chemosensory receptor ligand to modulate hormoneprofiles in an individual. Exemplary chemosensory receptor ligands andtheir use in modulating hormone profiles is described, e.g., in U.S.Application Publication Nos.: 20100267643, 20110065660, and 20120094942;and PCT Application Publication Nos. WO2010123930, WO2011133180,WO2012054523, WO2012054526, WO2012054527, WO2012054528, andWO2012054530, each of which is incorporated herein in its entirety byreference.

The embodiments described herein include compositions and methods formodulating the concentrations of circulating enteroendocrine cellhormones, including, but not limited to, GLP-1, GLP-2, GIP,oxyntomodulin, PYY, CCK, glycentin, insulin, glucagon, C-peptide,ghrelin, amylin, uroguanylin, etc., such compositions and methodscomprising administering at least one biguanide or related heterocycliccompound to a subject to treat certain conditions. Hormone modulationcan be achieved by administering a composition comprising a biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound acting on a bitter receptor.

In particular embodiments, a combination of a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound with one or more agonists of the sweet, umami,bitter, free fatty acid, and bile acid receptors will simulate thesynchronous release of important hormones and neural signals from theenteroendocrine cells and thus facilitate the assimilation anddisposition of meal nutrients. In additional embodiments, a combinationof a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound with one or moreagonists of the sweet, umami, bitter, free fatty acid, and bile acidreceptors suppresses ghrelin synthesis, activity or action, or itspost-translational modification (Ghrelin Octonoyl Acyl Transferaseactivity or GOAT) and/or ghrelin secretion or release.

Biguanides and Related Heterocyclic Compounds

The compositions and methods disclosed herein relate to biguanides andrelated heterocyclic compounds. By way of background, metformin is oneof the simplest structural variants of a class of compounds known as thebiguanides. From a structural perspective metformin resembles apharmacophore or fragment of a larger biologically active chemicalstructure. The parent biguanide structure, as well the structure ofmetformin phenformin, buformin, proguanil, imeglimin and its enantiomerare shown below.

Without intending to be limited by theory, while the geometry ofmetformin and related open chain biguanides in the context of theirinteractions with biological targets are not well understood, thegeometries are expected to be limited to the cisoid and transoid formsshown below.

Again, not intending to be limited by theory, these two forms representthe low energy forms of the structure with an inherent energy barrier tothe key bond rotation that allows the cisoid form to interconvert withthe transoid form. An X-ray crystal study of metformin dinitrate showsthe “cisoid” structure to be the favored conformer in the solid phase.Fridrichová M, Cisařová I, Němec I. 1,1-Dimethyl-biguanidium(2+)dinitrate. Acta Crystallogr Sect E Struct Rep Online. 2012 Jan. 1; 68(Pt1):o18-9. Epub 2011 Dec. 3. A related set of structures, thedihydrotriazines, exemplified by the compound known as Imeglimin(currently in late stage clinical evaluation by Poxel Pharmaceuticals)have the “cisoid” conformation fixed within their structures as shownbelow:

In an aspect of the disclosure, biguanides and related heterocycliccompounds are provided, including those comprising elements whichrigidify or fix the “cisoid” biguanide conformation, as illustratedbelow with the metformin variant of each of the exemplary structuraltypes. More particularly, the relationship between Metformin series[representative of Formula (I) herein], the triazole series[representative of Formula (IA) herein], the triazine series[representative of Formula (II) herein], the dihydrotriazine series[representative of Formula (III) herein], and the 7-ring series[representative of Formula (IV) herein] is illustrated.

In one embodiment, compounds of Formula I may be used in connection withthe compositions and methods of the disclosure.

Wherein:

-   -   R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, R₆, and R₇ are independently selected from:    -   H, OH,    -   O-Rx, wherein Rx is alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkylcycloalkyl, acyl,        ester, thioester;    -   optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., a C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally substituted with oxygen,        silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH,        S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl);        alkylcycloalkyl (e.g., C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl);        heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one or        two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including a C₂ to C₆        heterocycloalkyl); alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including a C₃ to C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and        including wherein when N is present in the heterocyclic ring,        the nitrogen atom may be in the form of an amide, carbamate or        urea); optionally substituted alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight        chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkynyl optionally substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or        optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂,        NH-alkyl);    -   optionally substituted aryl (e.g., phenyl, substituted phenyl,        naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); optionally substituted        alkylaryl (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl,        alkylnaphthyl, alkylsubstituted naphthyl); optionally        substituted heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl,        pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl,        triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted); optionally        substituted alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R₆ and R₇ may join to form a bond, together forming a ring        including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R₄ and R₅ may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached

In certain embodiments, O-Rx may be selected from: O—C1 to C8 straightchain or branched chain alkyl; O—C3 to C7 cycloalkyl; O—C4 to C8alkylcycloalkyl; O-acyl; O-esters; and O-thioesters.

In other embodiments, optional substitutions may include, e.g., OH,O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH2, NH-alkyl. Further, an alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, etc. may be substituted with an oxygen, silicon, sulphur, etc.to form a heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, etc.

In certain embodiments, each of: R3, R6, and R7, or R3, R4, R5, and R7,or R3, R4, R5, and R7, or R3, R4, R5, R6 and R7, or R2, R3, R4, R5, R6and R7 are independently selected from:

-   -   H, methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl;    -   and each of the remaining substitutent groups: R₁, R₂, R₄, and        R₅, or R₁, R₂, and R₆, or R₁, R₂, and R₆, or R₁ and R₂, or R₁,        respectively, are independently selected from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally hetero substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkenyl optionally hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon,        sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl,        NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂        straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally hetero        substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl);        cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl); alkylcycloalkyl (e.g.,        C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl); heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including C₂ to C₆ heterocycloalkyl);        alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one        or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including C₃ to        C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and including wherein when N is        present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea); aryl (e.g., phenyl,        substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); alkylaryl        (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl); heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl,        thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl,        pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted);        alkylheteroaryl;    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R₄ and R₅ may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached.

Exemplary compounds and substituents of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, and R7of Formula I are shown below. However, additional combinations ofselections of substituents of R1, R2, R3, R4, R5, R6, and R7 areenvisioned.

In other embodiments of compounds of Formula I, R₆ and R₇ are joined toform a bond, together forming a ring including the nitrogen atoms towhich they are attached, thereby providing triazole compounds of FormulaIA, which compounds may be used in connection with the compositions andmethods of the disclosure. Substituent definitions, unless otherwiseindicated, are the same as provided with reference to Formula I.

wherein:

-   -   R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, and R₅, are independently selected from:    -   H, OH,    -   O-Rx, wherein Rx is alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkylcycloalkyl, acyl,        ester, thioester;    -   optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., a C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally substituted with oxygen,        silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH,        S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl);        alkylcycloalkyl (e.g., C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl);        heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one or        two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including a C₂ to C₆        heterocycloalkyl); alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including a C₃ to C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and        including wherein when N is present in the heterocyclic ring,        the nitrogen atom may be in the form of an amide, carbamate or        urea); optionally substituted alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight        chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkynyl optionally substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or        optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂,        NH-alkyl);    -   optionally substituted aryl (e.g., phenyl, substituted phenyl,        naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); optionally substituted        alkylaryl (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl,        alkylnaphthyl, alkylsubstituted naphthyl); optionally        substituted heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl,        pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl,        triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted); optionally        substituted alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R₄ and R₅ may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached.

In certain embodiments, O-Rx may be selected from: O—C₁ to C₈ straightchain or branched chain alkyl; O—C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl; O—C₄ to C₈alkylcycloalkyl; O-acyl; O-esters; and O-thioesters.

In other embodiments, optional substitutions may include, e.g., OH,O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl. Further, an alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, etc. may be substituted with an oxygen, silicon, sulphur, etc.to form a heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, etc.

In certain embodiments, each of: R3, or R₃, and R₄, or R₃, R₄, and R₅,or R₂, R₃, R₄, and R₅ are independently selected from:

-   -   H, methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl;    -   and each of the remaining substitutent groups: R₁, R₂, R₄, and        R₅, or R₁, R₂, and R₅, or R₁ and R₂, or R₁ and R₂, or R₁,        respectively, are independently selected from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally hetero substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkenyl optionally hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon,        sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl,        NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂        straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally hetero        substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl);        cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl); alkylcycloalkyl (e.g.,        C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl); heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including C₂ to C₆ heterocycloalkyl);        alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one        or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including C₃ to        C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and including wherein when N is        present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea); aryl (e.g., phenyl,        substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); alkylaryl        (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl); heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl,        thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl,        pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted);        alkylheteroaryl;    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterócyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R₄ and R₅ may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached.

Exemplary compounds and substituents of R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, and R₅, ofFormula IA are shown below. However, additional combinations ofselections of substituents of R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, and R₅ are envisioned.

In other embodiments, triazine compounds of Formula II may be used inconnection with the compositions and methods of the disclosure.Substituent definitions, unless otherwise indicated, are the same asprovided with reference to Formula I.

wherein:

-   -   R₁, R₂, R4, and R₅, are independently selected from:    -   H, OH,    -   O-Rx, wherein Rx is alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkylcycloalkyl, acyl,        ester, thioester;    -   optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., a C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally substituted with oxygen,        silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH,        S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl);        alkylcycloalkyl (e.g., C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl);        heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one or        two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including a C₂ to C₆        heterocycloalkyl); alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including a C₃ to C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and        including wherein when N is present in the heterocyclic ring,        the nitrogen atom may be in the form of an amide, carbamate or        urea); optionally substituted alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight        chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkynyl optionally substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or        optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂,        NH-alkyl);    -   optionally substituted aryl (e.g., phenyl, substituted phenyl,        naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); optionally substituted        alkylaryl (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl,        alkylnaphthyl, alkylsubstituted naphthyl); optionally        substituted heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl,        pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl,        triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted); optionally        substituted alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R₄ and R₅ may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached;    -   R₈ is selected from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight        chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally hetero substituted        with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇        cycloalkyl); alkylcycloalkyl (e.g., C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl);        heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one or        two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including C₂ to C₆        heterocycloalkyl); alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including C₃ to C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl and including        wherein when N is present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen        atom may be in the form of an amide, carbamate or urea);        optionally substituted aryl (e.g., phenyl, substituted phenyl,        naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); optionally substituted        alkylaryl (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl,        alkylnaphthyl, alkylsubstituted naphthyl); optionally        substituted heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl,        pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl,        triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted); optionally        substituted alkylheteroaryl; and —NR_(a)R_(b)    -   wherein R_(a) and R_(b) are independently selected from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally substituted with oxygen,        silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH,        S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted alkenyl (C₁ to        C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally        substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl);        optionally substituted alkynyl (C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or        branched chain alkynyl optionally substituted with oxygen,        silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH,        S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl);        alkylcycloalkyl (e.g., C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl);        heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one or        two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including C₂ to C₆        heterocycloalkyl); alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including C₃ to C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and        including wherein when N is present in the heterocyclic ring,        the nitrogen atom may be in the form of an amide, carbamate or        urea); optionally substituted aryl (e.g., phenyl, substituted        phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl), optionally substituted        alkylaryl (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl,        alkylnaphthyl, alkylsubstituted naphthyl), optionally        substituted heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl,        pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl,        triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted), and        optionally substituted alkylheteroaryl.

In certain embodiments, O-Rx may be selected from: O—C₁ to C₈ straightchain or branched chain alkyl; O—C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl; O—C₄ to C₈alkylcycloalkyl; O-acyl; O-esters; and O-thioesters.

In other embodiments, optional substitutions may include, e.g., OH,O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl. Further, an alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, etc. may be substituted with an oxygen, silicon, sulphur, etc.to form a heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, etc.

In certain embodiments, R₈ may be selected from H; lower alkyl,including CH₃; NH₂; NH-alkyl, N(alkyl)₂, including NHCH₃, N(CH₃)₂. Incertain aspects, in combination with these particular selections of R₈if desired, each of R₁, R₂, R₄, and R₅, or R₂, R₄ and R₅, or R₄ and R₅,or R₅ may be independent selected from:

-   -   H, methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl;    -   and each of the remaining substitutent groups: R₁ or R₁ and R₂,        or R₁, R₂, and R₅, respectively, are independently selected        from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally hetero substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkenyl optionally hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon,        sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl,        NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂        straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally hetero        substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl);        cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl); alkylcycloalkyl (e.g.,        C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl); heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including C₂ to C₆ heterocycloalkyl);        alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one        or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including C₃ to        C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and including wherein when N is        present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea); aryl (e.g., phenyl,        substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); alkylaryl        (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl); heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl,        thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl,        pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted);        alkylheteroaryl;    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R₄ and R₅ may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached.

Exemplary compounds and substituents of R₁, R₂, R₄, R₅, and R₈ ofFormula II are shown below. However, additional combinations ofselections of substituents of R₁, R₂, R₄, R₅, and R₈ are envisioned.

In other embodiments, dihydrotriazine compounds of Formula III may beused in connection with the compositions and methods of the disclosure.Substituent definitions, unless otherwise indicated, are the same asprovided with reference to Formula I.

wherein:

-   -   R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, R₉, and R₁₀, are independently selected        from:    -   H, OH,    -   O-Rx, wherein Rx is alkyl, cycloalkyl, alkylcycloalkyl, acyl,        ester, thioester;    -   optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., a C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally substituted with oxygen,        silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH,        S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl);        alkylcycloalkyl (e.g., C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl);        heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one or        two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including a C₂ to C₆        heterocycloalkyl); alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including a C₃ to C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and        including wherein when N is present in the heterocyclic ring,        the nitrogen atom may be in the form of an amide, carbamate or        urea); optionally substituted alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight        chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkynyl optionally substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or        optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂,        NH-alkyl);    -   optionally substituted aryl (e.g., phenyl, substituted phenyl,        naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); optionally substituted        alkylaryl (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl,        alkylnaphthyl, alkylsubstituted naphthyl); optionally        substituted heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl,        pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl,        triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted); optionally        substituted alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R₄ and R₅ may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached.

In certain embodiments, O-Rx may be selected from: O—C₁ to C₈ straightchain or branched chain alkyl; O—C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl; O—C₄ to C₈alkylcycloalkyl; O-acyl; O-esters; and O-thioesters.

In other embodiments, optional substitutions may include, e.g., OH,O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl. Further, an alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, etc. may be substituted with an oxygen, silicon, sulphur, etc.to form a heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, etc.

In certain aspects, each of: R₃ or R₃, R₄, R₅, and R₁₀, or, R₃, R₄, R₅,R₉ and R₁₀, or R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, R₉ and R₁₀ may be independent selectedfrom:

-   -   H, methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl;    -   and each of the remaining substitutent groups: R₁, R₂, R₄, R₅,        R₉, and R₁₀, or R₁, R₂, and R₉, or R₁ and R₂, or R₁,        respectively, are independently selected from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally hetero substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkenyl optionally hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon,        sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl,        NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂        straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally hetero        substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl);        cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl); alkylcycloalkyl (e.g.,        C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl); heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including C₂ to C₆ heterocycloalkyl);        alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one        or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including C₃ to        C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and including wherein when N is        present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea); aryl (e.g., phenyl,        substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); alkylaryl        (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl); heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl,        thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl,        pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted);        alkylheteroaryl;    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached;    -   or R₄ and R₅ may together form a ring selected from the group        aziridine, pyrrolyl, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, indolyl, indolinyl,        pyrrolidinyl, piperazinyl and piperidyl, including the nitrogen        atoms to which they are attached.

Exemplary compounds and substituents of R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, R₉, and R₁₀of Formula III are shown below. However, additional combinations ofselections of substituents of R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, R₉, and R₁₀ areenvisioned.

In other embodiments, 7-ring series compounds of Formula IV may be usedin connection with the compositions and methods of the disclosure.Substituent definitions, unless otherwise indicated, are the same asprovided with reference to Formula I.

wherein:

-   -   wherein R₃, R₄, R₅, R₆, R₇, R₈ and R₉ are independently selected        from H, methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl;    -   and wherein R₁ and R₂, and are independently selected from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., a C₁ to C₁₂ straight        chain or branched chain alkyl optionally substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇        cycloalkyl); alkylcycloalkyl (e.g., C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl);        heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one or        two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including a C₂ to C₆        heterocycloalkyl); alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including a C₃ to C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and        including wherein when N is present in the heterocyclic ring,        the nitrogen atom may be in the form of an amide, carbamate or        urea); optionally substituted alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight        chain or branched chain alkenyl optionally substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkynyl optionally substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or        optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂,        NH-alkyl);    -   optionally substituted aryl (e.g., phenyl, substituted phenyl,        naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); optionally substituted        alkylaryl (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl,        alkylnaphthyl, alkylsubstituted naphthyl); optionally        substituted heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl, thiophenyl,        pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl,        triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted); optionally        substituted alkylheteroaryl; and    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached.

In other embodiments, optional substitutions may include, e.g., OH,O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl. Further, an alkyl, alkenyl,alkynyl, etc. may be substituted with an oxygen, silicon, sulphur, etc.to form a heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, etc.

In certain aspects, each of: R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, R₁₁, R₁₂, R₁₃ and R₁₄ areindependently selected from:

-   -   H, methyl, ethyl, propyl or isopropyl;    -   and R₁ is selected from:    -   H; optionally substituted alkyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain        or branched chain alkyl optionally hetero substituted with        oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally substituted with OH,        O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted        alkenyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂ straight chain or branched chain        alkenyl optionally hetero substituted with oxygen, silicon,        sulphur or optionally substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl,        NH₂, NH-alkyl); optionally substituted alkynyl (e.g., C₁ to C₁₂        straight chain or branched chain alkynyl optionally hetero        substituted with oxygen, silicon, sulphur or optionally        substituted with OH, O-alkyl, SH, S-alkyl, NH₂, NH-alkyl);        cycloalkyl (e.g., C₃ to C₇ cycloalkyl); alkylcycloalkyl (e.g.,        C₄ to C₁₂ alkylcycloalkyl); heterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the        heterocycle comprises one or two hetero atoms selected from O,        S, or N, including C₂ to C₆ heterocycloalkyl);        alkylheterocycloalkyl (e.g., where the heterocycle comprises one        or two hetero atoms selected from O, S, or N, including C₃ to        C₁₁ alkylheterocycloalkyl, and including wherein when N is        present in the heterocyclic ring, the nitrogen atom may be in        the form of an amide, carbamate or urea); aryl (e.g., phenyl,        substituted phenyl, naphthyl, substituted naphthyl); alkylaryl        (e.g., alkylphenyl, alkylsubstituted phenyl, alkylnaphthyl,        alkylsubstituted naphthyl); heteroaryl (e.g., pyridyl, furanyl,        thiophenyl, pyrrolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, diazolyl,        pyrazolyl, triazolyl all of which are optionally substituted);        alkylheteroaryl;    -   or R₁ and R₂ may together form a 3 to 8 membered heterocyclic        ring, including the nitrogen atoms to which they are attached.

Exemplary compounds and substituents of R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, R₁₁, R₁₂,R₁₃ and R₁₄ of Formula IV are shown below. However, additionalcombinations of selections of substituents of R₁, R₂, R₃, R₄, R₅, R₁₁,R₁₂, R₁₃ and R₁₄ are envisioned.

In certain embodiments, the compounds of Formulas I, IA, II, III or IVmay include an asymmetric center or centers, and may be in the form of acomposition of a racemic mixture, a diastereoisomeric mixture, a singleenantiomer, an enantiomeric diastereomer, a meso compound, a pureepimer, or a mixture of epimers thereof, etc. Further, the compounds ofFormulas I, IA, II, III or IV may have one or more double bonds, and maybe in a form of a cis/trans, E/Z mixture or an E or Z geometric isomerthereof.

The compounds of Formulas I, IA, II, III, and IV may also be prepared asa salt form, e.g., pharmaceutically acceptable salts, including suitableacid forms, e.g., salt forms selected from hydrochloride, hydrobromide,acetate, propionate, butyrate, sulphate, hydrogen sulphate, sulphite,carbonate, hydrogen carbonate, phosphate, phosphinate, oxalate,hemi-oxalate, malonate, hemi-malonate, fumarate, hemi-fumarate, maleate,hemi-maleate, citrate, hemi-citrate, tartrate, hemi-tartrate, aspartate,glutamate, etc.

In one embodiment, the compounds of the disclosure may be prepared as athree component salt form including the components A, B, and C wherein:

-   -   A is the protonated form of a natural or unnatural amino acid;    -   B is the dianion of an acid; and    -   C is the protonated form of a Compound of Formulas I, IA, II,        III or IV.

In certain aspects, stoichiometric amounts of A, B, and C may beincluded wherein:

-   -   A is the protonated form of a natural amino acid selected from        alanine, aspartic acid, asparagine, arginine, glycine,        glutamine, glutamic acid lysine, phenylalanine, tyrosine,        serine, threonine, tryptophan, leucine, isoleucine, histidine,        methionine, proline, cysteine, or cystine;    -   B is the dianion of an acid selected from oxalic, malonic,        citric, maleic, fumaric, tartaric, aspartic, glutamic acids and        the like; and    -   C is the protonated form of a compound of Formulas I, IA, II,        III or IV.        Synthesis of the Compounds

Compounds described herein may be synthesized using standard synthetictechniques known to those of skill in the art or using methods known inthe art in combination with methods described herein. In additions,solvents, temperatures and other reaction conditions presented hereinmay vary according to the practice and knowledge of those of skill inthe art.

The starting material used for the synthesis of compounds describedherein can be obtained from commercial sources, such as Aldrich ChemicalCo. (Milwaukee, Wis.), Sigma Chemical Co. (St. Louis, Mo.), or thestarting materials can be synthesized. The compounds described herein,and other related compounds having different substituents can besynthesized using techniques and materials known to those of skill inthe art, such as described, for example, in March, ADVANCED ORGANICCHEMISTRY 4th Ed., (Wiley 1992); Carey and Sundberg, ADVANCED ORGANICCHEMISTRY 4th Ed., Vols. A and B (Plenum 2000, 2001), and Green andWuts, PROTECTIVE GROUPS IN ORGANIC SYNTHESIS 3rd Ed., (Wiley 1999) (allof which are incorporated by reference in their entirety). Generalmethods for the preparation of the compounds as disclosed herein may bederived from known reactions in the field, and the reactions may bemodified by the use of appropriate reagents and conditions, as would berecognized by the skilled person, for the introduction of the variousmoieties found in the formulae as provided herein.

Additional biguanide and related heterocyclic compounds and synthesismethods and schemes for the compounds described herein can be found inU.S. application Ser. No. 12/593,479 (published as U.S. 2010/0130498);U.S. application Ser. No. 12/593,398 (published as U.S. 2010/0184796);U.S. Pat. No. 7,829,299; U.S. application Ser. No. 11/578,013 (publishedas U.S. 2010/0056621); U.S. Pat. No. 7,416,867; U.S. application Ser.No. 11/455,693 (published as U.S. 2007/0037212); U.S. application Ser.No. 13/059,730 (published as U.S. 2011/0143376), U.S. application Ser.No. 12/996,670 (published as U.S. 2011/0311991), U.S. Pat. No.7,811,788; U.S. application Ser. No. 11/182,942 (published as U.S.2006/0019346); U.S. application Ser. No. 12/993,542 (published as U.S.2011/0086138), U.S. application Ser. No. 12/373,235 (published as U.S.2010/0055209); International Application Ser. No. PCT/IL2007/000454(published as WO 2007/116404); U.S. application Ser. No. 10/472,056(published as U.S. 2004/0138189); U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,891,919; 6,376,657;U.S. application Ser. No. 11/554,982 (published as U.S. 2007/0104805);U.S. application Ser. No. 11/926,745 (published as U.S. 2008/0108604);International Application Ser. No. PCT/CA2009/001688 (published as WO2010/060198); U.S. Application Ser. No. 12/735,557 (published as U.S.2010/0330205); International Application Ser. No. PCT/CA2007/001066(published as WO 2008/000063); U.S. application Ser. No. 11/438,204(published as U.S. 2006/0269617); U.S. application Ser. No. 10/563,713(published as U.S. 2006/0172020); U.S. application Ser. No. 10/902,352(published as U.S. 2006/0024335); U.S. application Ser. No. 10/538,038(published as U.S. 2006/0275765), U.S. application Ser. No. 11/555,617(published as U.S. 2008/0187936); U.S. application Ser. No. 12/739,264(published as U.S. 2010/0316736); U.S. application Ser. No. 12/215,609(published as U.S. 2009/0042813); U.S. application Ser. No. 11/893,088(published as U.S. 2008/0050499); U.S. Pat. No. 7,807,204; U.S.application Ser. No. 11/811,166 (published as U.S. 2008/0003268); U.S.Pat. No. 6,376,657; International Application Ser. No. PCT/US2011/041183(published as WO 2011/163183); International Application Ser. No.PCT/EP2011/059814 (published as WO 2011/157692); U.S. application Ser.No. 12/790,292 (published as U.S. 2011/0293753); InternationalApplication Ser. No. PCT/JP2009/071700 (published as WO 2010/076879);U.S. application Ser. No. 13/032,530 (published as U.S. 2011/0217394);International Application Ser. No. PCT/EP2011/000110 (published as WO2011/085979); International Application Ser. No. PCT/US2010/058467(published as WO 2011/068814); U.S. application Ser. No. 13/060,996(published as U.S. 2011/0152361); U.S. Application Ser. No. 12/09,253(published as U.S. 2011/0124609); U.S. application Ser. No. 12/687,962(published as U.S. 2011/0119499); and International Application Ser. No.PCT/EP2010/004623 (published as WO 2011/012298); each of which areincorporated by reference in their entirety.

Other known biguanide and related compounds include:

Chlorhexidine, a compound with antiseptic properties:

Cycloguanil, a compound with anti-malarial properties:

Polyhexamethylene biguanide, a compound with antiseptic properties:

A compound designated JPC-2067-B, known as Toxoplasma Gondi Inhibitor:

These and other biguanide and related heterocyclic compounds areenvisioned as within the scope of the disclosure. In furtherembodiments, a biguanide and related heterocyclic compound is metforminor a salt thereof.

Metformin

Metformin has low bioavailability in terms of circulating bloodconcentrations as compared to many other orally administered drugs. Forexample, metformin is reported to have an average systemicbioavailability of 30% to 60% while many comparably small molecules havebioavailability of greater than 60%. See, e.g., Tucker et al.,“Metformin kinetics in healthy subjects and in patients with diabetesmellitus” Br. J. Clin. Pharmacol. 1981, 12(2) 235-246. It has beenreported that administration of metformin increases release of GLP-1from the L cells located in the gut. However, GLP-1 release from the Lcells (and activation of enteroendocrine cells) is triggered by theluminal signals on the epithelial aspect of the gut. There are no knownexamples of blood-borne or circulating signals that can activateenteroendocrine cells to release their hormonal contents. Thus, it iscontemplated that metformin does not act through its presence in theplasma circulation per se. Metformin may cause activation ofenteroendocrine cells (e.g., by binding to a bitter receptor on the Lcell or other enteroendocrine cell), including GLP-1 release from Lcells through an interaction with the luminal or epithelial aspect of Lcells.

Minimizing Systemic Exposure

Provided herein, in certain embodiments, are compositions of a biguanideor related heterocyclic compound, e.g., metformin or a salt thereof,adapted to minimize the systemic bioavailability of the compound, e.g.,by delivery to the gut. In some embodiments, the compositions of abiguanide or related heterocyclic compound, e.g., metformin or a saltthereof, adapted for delivery to enteroendocrine cells described hereinminimize metformin plasma absorption in a subject. In other embodiments,the compositions of a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound, e.g.,metformin or a salt thereof, minimize plasma Cmax and/or AUC levels. Inother embodiments, the compositions of a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound, e.g., metformin or a salt thereof, havenegligible metformin plasma absorption, Cmax and/or AUC levels. It otherembodiments, Cmax, and/or AUC levels of the biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound, e.g., metformin or a salt thereof, are what waspreviously considered sub-therapeutic for the described compositions ascompared to reported Cmax and/or AUC levels of known formulations of thecompounds.

In preferred embodiments, the compositions described herein are adaptedto reduce or minimize systemic bioavailability of the compound, e.g.,minimize the circulating plasma concentration of the biguanide compoundin the patient and/or reduce the average systemic bioavailability of thecompound, e.g., when compared to a immediate release composition havingan equivalent amount of the compound. In some embodiments, the minimizedcirculating plasma concentration is below about 5 μg/mL, 4 μg/mL, 3μg/mL, 2 μg/mL, 1 μg/mL, 0.5 g/mL or 0.25 μg/mL in subjects with normalor impaired renal function. In other embodiments, an adapted compoundcomposition provides 70%, 60%, 50%, 40%, 30%, or 20% less relativebioavailability of the compound compared to an immediate releasecomposition having the same amount of the compound.

Negligible or sub-therapeutic metformin plasma Cmax and/or AUC levelsinclude 50%, 40%, 30%, 20% and 10% of reported Cmax and/or AUC levels ofknown metformin formulations (e.g., GLUMETZA, GLUCOPHAGE, GLUCOPHAGE XR,RIOMET, FORTAMET, OBIMET, GLUFORMIN, DIANBEN, DIABEX, DIAFORMIN,Metformin IR, Metformin SR, and the like). For example, a known extendedrelease metformin formulation, GLUMETZA, has mean Cmax values that are473±145, 868±223, 1171±297, and 1630±399 ng/mL for single doses of 500,1000, 500, and 2500 mg, respectively. For AUC, the mean values forGLUMETZA are 3501±796, 6705±1918, 9299±2833, and 14161±4432 ng·hr/mL forsingle doses of 500, 1000, 1500, and 2500 mg, respectively (GLUMETZAproduct label).

In further embodiments, the compositions of metformin or a salt thereofhave reduced average systemic bioavailability. Reduced average systemicbioavailability, in some embodiments, is lower average systemicbioavailability as compared to an immediate release metforminformulation (relative bioavailability) having an equivalent amount ofmetformin. In other embodiments, reduced average systemicbioavailability is when the average systemic bioavailability, e.g.,relative bioavailability is less than 40%, 30%, less than 25%, less than15%, less than 10% and less than 5%. In certain instances, the averagesystemic bioavailability is less than 15%.

To achieve these effects, delivery of metformin is designed for modifiedrelease that, for example, is retained in the gastro-intestinal tract,and/or releases metformin dosages in amounts that minimize plasmaabsorption. The delivery of metformin to one or more regions of theintestine is via any known method including, e.g., oral, rectal,nasogastric tube, parenterally injection such as intraluminal intestinalinjection. In some instances, the delivery is oral. Oral delivery ofmetformin compositions are described in the modified releaseformulations section and include timed release systems, enteric coatingsand pH dependent systems, gastro-retentive systems, floating systems,bioadhesive systems, swelling systems and the like. In some embodiments,the metformin compositions described herein utilize a multicomponentsystem where metformin is delivered to several places in thegastrointestinal tract such as the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, lowerintestine or combinations thereof following administration. For example,a metformin composition can deliver to the small intestine by use ofimmediate release and timed or delayed (enteric) release components.Multicomponent systems of metformin compositions can be in unitarydosage forms such as bi- or tri- or multiple-layer tablets ormulti-particulate forms such as encapsulated micro-tablets or asseparate dosage forms, e.g., separate tablets taken together or at aperiodic interval.

In some embodiments, a composition of metformin or a salt thereofadapted for delivery to one or more regions of the intestine comprisestwo components for delivering metformin where the first component isimmediate release and the second component is an immediate release ortimed release covered with an enteric coating. The second componentreleases after an onset desired pH, due to the enteric coating. pHscontemplated include about pH 5.0, about pH 5.5, about pH 6.0, about pH6.5 and about pH 7.0. After an onset of a desired pH, the secondcomponent begins release. Second components that comprise immediaterelease metformin in about 15 minutes, about 20 minutes, about 25minutes or about 30 minutes after the onset of the desired pH, whilesecond components comprising timed, extended or slow release over thecourse of a longer time period such as about 1 hour, about 2 hours,about 3 hours, about 4 hours, about 5 hours, about 6 hours, about 7hours or about 8 hours. The exemplary two component metformin deliverysystem can be, in some embodiments, a bilayer tablet. Three, four andadditional components are contemplated within the embodiments. Forexample, a third or forth component may include a gastro-retentivecomponent or one that delivers and releases metformin specifically tothe lower intestine.

For compositions comprising metformin or a salt thereof, dosages ofmetformin can range from about 1 mg to about 2000 mg, about 10 mg toabout 1500 mg, about 50 mg to about 1000 or about 100 mg or about 500 mgper day. In some instances, the dosage of metformin or a salt thereof isabout 2000 mg, about 1500 about 1000 mg, about 800 mg, about 600 mg,about 500 mg, about 400 mg, about 300 mg, about 250 mg, about 200 mg,about 150 mg, about 100 mg, about 75 mg, about 50 mg, about 25 mg, about10 mg or about 1 mg per day. In some embodiments, the dosage ofmetformin or a salt thereof is less than 400 mg. In some embodiments,the dosage of metformin or a salt thereof is 250 mg.

Salts of metformin include, but are not limited to, hydrochloride,phosphate, sulfate, hydrobromide, salicylate, maleate, benzoate,succinnate, ethanesulfonate, fumarate, glycolate, pamoate, oratate,acetate, isobutyrate, acetylsalicylate, nicotinic acid, adamantoate,zinc-chlorophylin, carboxylic acid, benzoic acid, dichloroacetic acid,theophylin-7-acetate, clofibrate, tartate, oxalate, tannate and hydroxylacid salts. In certain instances, the metformin salt is metforminhydrochloride.

The compositions of metformin or a salt thereof adapted for delivery toone or more regions of the intestine, in some embodiments, areadministered or combined with additional agents, such as anti-obesityand/or anti-diabetic agents described herein. Notable agents forcombinations with the metformin compositions described herein includeDPP-IV inhibitors (e.g., sitagliptin, saxagliptin, berberine,vildagliptin, linagliptin, alogliptin, and the like), thiazolidinediones(e.g., pioglitazone, rivoglitazone, rosiglitazone, troglitazone, and thelike), sulfonylureas (e.g., glipzide, glibenclamide (glyburide),gliquidone, glyclopyramide, glimepiride, gliclazide, acetohexamide,carbutamide, chlorpropamide, tolbutamide, tolazamide, and the like), andDual PPAR agonists (aleglitazar, muraglitazar, tesaglitazar, and thelike).

In further embodiments, a chemosensory receptor modifier is administeredwith a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound to alter or change theactivity of a receptor toward the compound. In yet further embodiments achemosensory receptor enhancer is administered with a biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound to enhance, potentiate or multiply theeffect of the compound. In certain instances, modifiers and/or enhancersare administered prior to administration of a compound enhance,potentiate or multiply the effect of the compound. In other instances,modifiers and/or enhancers are administered with a compound together toenhance, potentiate or multiply the effect of the compound.

Modulators and enhancers can be specific to a chemoreceptor type and/ormultiple chemoreceptor types. Specific chemoreceptor modulators andenhancers can include, but are not limited to, umami receptor modulatorsand enhancers, sweet receptor modulators and enhancers, bitter receptormodulators and enhancers, fat receptor modulators and enhancers, bileacid receptor modulators and enhancers, sour receptor modulators andenhancers, and the like.

In some embodiments, a bitter receptor enhancer is selected fromenhancer compounds described herein or known in the art. Bitter receptorenhancers include, but are not limited to, sweet receptor ligands insub-bitter quantities, i.e., quantities that do not elicit a bittertaste response. In some embodiments, a bitter receptor enhancer is asilver salt. Silver salts include silver acetate and silver lactate.

Combinations

The biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds can be administeredalone or in combination with each other. Dosages for each biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound can be determined via methods known in theart. Maximal response doses and maximum tolerated doses can bedetermined via animal and human experimental protocols as describedherein. Additional relative dosages, represented as a percent of maximalresponse or of maximum tolerated dose, are easily obtained via theprotocols.

In an exemplary dose-response experiment, biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds are individually administered in an animal model(e.g. diabetic or obese rat model) to determine the optimum doses foreach biguanide or related heterocyclic compound. biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds are administered individually at increasingamounts (mg/kg/min), where each subject is administered a set mg/kg/mindose and the dose is maintained at this set level for a defined period.Blood samples are collected at frequent intervals (e.g., every 1, 2, or5 minutes) throughout the period and assayed for hormone concentrations.Hormones assayed include CCK, GIP, GLP-1, oxyntomodulin, PYY, insulin,C-peptide, and GLP-2. 50% of maximal response dose and 50% of themaximum tolerated dose are determined for each biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound.

In some embodiments, at least one biguanide or related heterocycliccompound is administered at a concentration that is 50% of the maximalresponse dose. In other embodiments, at least one biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound is administered at a concentration that is 50% ofthe maximum tolerated dose. biguanide or related heterocyclic compound scan be administered as 5%, 10%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%,60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 100%, of the maximum responseor maximum tolerated dose, inclusive of all integers therein.

The combinations of biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds can beadministered in a single composition or in multiple compositions.Multiple compositions may be administered simultaneously or at differenttimes. The compositions may be administered in different delivery forms(i.e., tablets, powders, capsules, gels, liquids, nutritionalsupplements, edible food preparations (e.g., medical foods, bars, gels,sprinkles, gums, lozenges, candies, liquids, etc.) and in anycombination of such forms.

In one non-limiting example, a tablet containing at least one biguanideor related heterocyclic compound is administered simultaneously withanother tablet containing at least one biguanide or related heterocycliccompound to provide the desired dosage. In a further example, the twotablets are administered at different times. In another non-limitingexample, a tablet containing the desired combination of biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound(s) is administered to provide the fulldosage. Any combination of delivery forms, compositions, and deliverytimes are contemplated herein.

The constituents of the compositions provided by the invention can bevaried both with respect to the individual constituents and relativeproportions of the constituents. In embodiments, the relative proportionof the constituents is optimized to produce the desired synergisticactivity from the drug combination. For example, in a compositioncomprising, or a method comprising administering, two constituents,e.g., two biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds, or as anothernonlimiting example, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound and achemosensory receptor ligand, the constituents can be present in ratiosof or about, e.g., 1:1, 1:2, 1:3, 1:4, 1:5, 1:6, 1:7, 1:8, 1:9, 1:10,1:15, 1:20, 1:25, 1:30, 1:35, 1:40, 1:45, 1:50, 1:60, 1:70, 1:80, 1:90,1:100, 1:200, 1:300, 1:400, 1:500, 1:1000, etc. In a compositioncomprising, or a method comprising administering, three constituents,for example two biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds, and ametabolized chemosensory receptor ligand, the constituents can bepresent in ratios of or about, e.g., 1:1:1, 2:1:1, 2:2:1, 3:1:1, 3:3:1,3:2:2, 3:3:2, 3:2:1, 4:1:1, 4:4:1, 4:2:2, 4:4:2, 4:2:3, 4:3:3, 4:4:3,4:2:1, 5:1:1, 5:5:1, 5:2:1, 5:3:1, 5:3:2, 5:3:4, 5:5:2, 5:5:3, 5:5:4,10:1:1, 10:10:1, etc.

When more than one biguanide or related heterocyclic compound is used incombination with at least one other chemosensory receptor ligand orcompound, it is understood that the combination treatment regimenencompasses treatment regimens in which administration of one compoundis initiated prior to, during, or after treatment with a second oradditional agent in the combination, and continues until any time duringtreatment with any other agent in the combination or after terminationof treatment with any other agent. Treatment regimens also include thosein which the agents being used in combination are administeredsimultaneously or at different times and/or at decreasing or increasingintervals during the treatment period. Combination treatment includesperiodic treatments that start and stop at various times to assist withthe clinical management of the patient.

Indications

Among the conditions that are contemplated for treating using thecompositions and methods of the embodiments herein are metabolicsyndrome, diabetes type I, diabetes type II, obesity, binge eating,undesired food cravings, food addiction, a desire to reduce food intakeor to lose weight or maintain weight loss, desire to maintain healthyweight, desire to maintain normal blood glucose metabolism, anorexia,pre-diabetes, glucose intolerance, gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM),impaired fasting glycemia, (IFG), post-prandial hyperglycemia,accelerated gastric emptying (dumping syndrome), delayed gastricemptying, dyslipidemia, post-prandial dyslipidemia, hyperlipidemia,hypertriglyceridemia, post hypertriglyceridemia, insulin resistance,bone loss disorders, osteopenia, osteoporosis, muscle wasting disease,muscle degenerative disorders, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS),non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFL), non-alcoholic steatohepatitis(NASH), immune disorders of the gut (e.g., celiac disease), bowelirregularity, irritable bowel syndrome (IBS), or inflammatory boweldisease (IBD), including, e.g., ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, andshort bowel syndrome, peripheral neuropathy (e.g., diabetic neuropathy).In certain embodiments, the methods comprise treating a subject havingsadness, stress, grief, anxiety, anxiety disorder (e.g., generalizedanxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder,post-traumatic stress disorder or social anxiety disorder or a mooddisorder (e.g., depression, bipolar disorder, dysthymic disorder andcyclothymic disorder) by administering a composition comprising abiguanides or related heterocyclic compositions provided herein. Incertain embodiments, the methods comprise methods of inducing feelingsof happiness, well-being or contentment in subjects by administering acomposition comprising biguanide or related heterocyclic compositionprovided herein.

Additionally, the compositions and methods described herein may be usedfor the dietary management of conditions listed above. In someembodiments, the compositions and methods provided herein are indicatedfor treatment, prevention and or maintenance of a metabolic disorder,disease or defect. Metabolic disorders, diseases or defects can includedisorders, diseases or defects in energy homeostasis and disorders,diseases or defects in fuel homeostasis.

In certain embodiments, the compositions and methods provided herein areindicated for treatment, prevention and or maintenance of disorders,diseases and defects associated with energy homeostasis. Energyhomeostasis generally relates to the signally pathways, molecules andhormones associated with food intake and energy expenditure. Disorders,diseases and defects associated with energy homeostasis include but arenot limited to diabetes type I, diabetes type II, prediabetes, impairedfasting glycemia (IFG), impaired post-prandial glucose, and gestationaldiabetes. In some instances the compositions and methods provided hereinare indicated for treatment, prevention and or maintenance of diabetestype I or type II.

In certain embodiments, the compositions and methods provided herein areindicated for treatment, prevention and or maintenance of disorders,diseases and defects associated with fuel homeostasis. Disorders,diseases and defects associated with fuel homeostasis include but is notlimited to non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFL), non-alcoholicsteatohepatitis (NASH), hyperlipidemia, post hypertriglyceridemia,hypertriglyceridemia, insulin resistance and polycystic ovary syndrome(PCOS).

The embodiments also provide compositions and methods useful fortreating conditions in which an increase in insulin secretion or controlof glucose concentrations resulting from modulation of enteroendocrinecell hormones (e.g., GLP-1 or GIP) would be beneficial. These conditionsinclude, but are not limited to, metabolic syndrome, diabetes type 1,diabetes type II, gestational diabetes, glucose intolerance, and relatedconditions including those in which patients suffer from glucoseintolerance.

The embodiments also provide compositions and methods for modulatinggrowth (proliferation), and/or generation (neogenesis), and/orprevention of cell death (apoptosis) of insulin producing and secretingcells (Beta cells) through the release of neural and hormonal signalsemanating from the gut in response to luminal chemosensory stimulation.Gut hormones such as GLP-1, PYY, GLP-2 and gastrin have all beenimplicated in the process of beta cell preservation or beta cell massexpansion. In one aspect, chemosensory stimulation provides a hormonalsignal coupled to a neural signal. The hormonal signal can occur before,after or at similar timeframes as the neural signal.

The embodiments also provide compositions and methods for treatingconditions in which appetite suppression resulting from modulation of,e.g., PYY, oxyntomodulin, and/or CCK, would be beneficial. Theseconditions include, but are not limited to, obesity, binge eating,undesired food cravings, a desire to reduce food intake or to loseweight or maintain weight loss, and related conditions.

Further provided are compositions and methods for treating conditions inwhich proliferation of gut cells resulting from modulation of, e.g.,GLP-2, would be beneficial, such as, short bowel syndrome, Crohn'sdisease, inflammatory bowel disease, ulcerative colitis, and otherconditions resulting in bowel damage, including osteoporosis.

Methods of Treatment

Disorders of Glucose Metabolism

The embodiments described herein provide compositions and methods fortreating and preventing disorders of glucose metabolism and theirassociated conditions.

For example, provided herein are methods for treating mammalian subjectswith diabetes, including primary essential diabetes such as Type IDiabetes or Type II Diabetes (NIDDM) and secondary nonessentialdiabetes, comprising administering to the subject at least one biguanideor related heterocyclic compound as described herein. In accordance withthe method of this invention a symptom of diabetes or the chance ofdeveloping a symptom of diabetes, such as atherosclerosis, obesity,hypertension, hyperlipidemia, fatty liver disease, nephropathy,neuropathy, retinopathy, foot ulceration and cataracts, each suchsymptom being associated with diabetes, can be reduced.

The methods and compositions provided by the invention are useful forpreventing or ameliorating diseases and symptoms associated withhyperglycemia and insulin resistance or low insulin concentrations.While a cluster of signs and symptoms associated may coexist in anindividual patient, it many cases only one symptom may dominate, due toindividual differences in vulnerability of the many physiologicalsystems affected by insulin resistance. Nonetheless, since hyperglycemiaand insulin resistance are major contributors to many diseaseconditions, agents that address these cellular and molecular defects areuseful for prevention or amelioration of virtually any symptom in anyorgan system that may be due to, or exacerbated by hyperglycemia andinsulin resistance.

Metabolic syndrome is a cluster of metabolic abnormalities includingabdominal obesity, insulin resistance, glucose intolerance, diabetes,hypertension and dyslipidemia. These abnormalities are known to beassociated with an increased risk of vascular events.

In addition to the metabolic disorders related to insulin resistanceindicated above, disease symptoms secondary to hyperglycemia also occurin patients with NIDDM. These include nephropathy, peripheralneuropathy, retinopathy, microvascular disease, ulceration of theextremities, and consequences of nonenzymatic glycosylation of proteins,e.g. damage to collagen and other connective tissues. Attenuation ofhyperglycemia reduces the rate of onset and severity of theseconsequences of diabetes. Because compositions and methods of theinvention help to reduce hyperglycemia in diabetes, they are useful forprevention and amelioration of complications of chronic hyperglycemia.

Elevated triglyceride and free fatty acid concentrations in blood affecta substantial fraction of the population and are an important riskfactor for atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction. Provided hereinare compositions and methods useful for reducing circulatingtriglycerides and free fatty acids in hyperlipidemic patients.Hyperlipidemic patients often also have elevated blood cholesterolconcentrations, which also increase the risk of cardiovascular disease.Cholesterol-lowering drugs such as HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors(“statins”) can be administered to hyperlipidemic patients in additionto biguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositions of theinvention, optionally incorporated into the same pharmaceuticalcomposition.

A substantial fraction of the population is affected by fatty liverdisease, also known as nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH); NASH isoften associated with obesity and diabetes. Hepatic steatosis, thepresence of droplets of triglycerides with hepatocytes, predisposes theliver to chronic inflammation (detected in biopsy samples asinfiltration of inflammatory leukocytes), which can lead to fibrosis andcirrhosis. Fatty liver disease is generally detected by observation ofelevated serum concentrations of liver-specific enzymes such as thetransaminases ALT and AST, which serve as indices of hepatocyte injury,as well as by presentation of symptoms which include fatigue and pain inthe region of the liver, though definitive diagnosis often requires abiopsy. The anticipated benefit is a reduction in liver inflammation andfat content, resulting in attenuation, halting, or reversal of theprogression of NASH toward fibrosis and cirrhosis.

Hypoinsulinemia is a condition wherein lower than normal amounts ofinsulin circulate throughout the body and wherein obesity is generallynot involved. This condition includes Type I diabetes.

Type 2 Diabetes or abnormal glucose metabolism may be caused by avariety of factors and may manifest heterogeneous symptoms. Previously,Type 2 Diabetes was regarded as a relatively distinct disease entity,but current understanding has revealed that Type 2 Diabetes (and itsassociated hyperglycemia or dysglycemia) is often a manifestation of amuch broader underlying disorder, which includes the metabolic syndromeas noted above. This syndrome is sometimes referred to as Syndrome X,and is a cluster of cardiovascular disease risk factors that, inaddition to glucose intolerance, includes hyperinsulinaemia,dyslipidaemia, hypertension, visceral obesity, hypercoagulability, andmicroalbuminuria.

Also provided herein are compositions and methods for treating obesity,comprising administering to the subject at least one biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound as described herein in an amount effectiveto treat the condition. The agent can be administered orally, andalternatively, other routes of administration that can be used inaccordance with this invention include rectally, and parenterally, byinjection (e.g., by intraluminal intestinal injection).

Both human and non-human mammalian subjects can be treated in accordancewith the methods of this invention. In embodiments, the presentinvention provides compositions and methods for preventing or treatingdiabetes in a wide range of subject mammals, in particular, a humanpatient that has, has had, is suspected of having, or who ispre-disposed to developing diabetes. Diabetes mellitus is selected fromthe group consisting of insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IDDM ortype I diabetes) and non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus (IIDDM, ortype II diabetes). Examples of disorders related to diabetes mellitushave been described and include, but are not limited to, impairedglucose tolerance (IGT); maturity-onset diabetes of youth (MODY);leprechaunism (insulin receptor mutation), tropical diabetes, diabetessecondary to a pancreatic disease or surgery; diabetes associated with agenetic syndrome (e.g., Prader-Willi syndrome); pancreatitis; diabetessecondary to endocrinopathies; adipositas; and metabolic syndrome(syndrome X).

Diabetic subjects appropriate for treating using the compositions andmethods provided by the invention can be easily recognized by thephysician, and are characterized by, e.g., fasting hyperglycemia,impaired glucose tolerance, glycosylated hemoglobin, and, in someinstances, ketoacidosis associated with trauma or illness. Hyperglycemiaor high blood sugar is a condition in which an excessive amount ofglucose circulates in the blood plasma. This is generally a bloodglucose level of 10+ mmol/L, but symptoms and effects may not start tobecome noticeable until later numbers such as 15-20+ mmol/L. NIDDMpatients have an abnormally high blood glucose concentration whenfasting and delayed cellular uptake of glucose following meals or aftera diagnostic test known as the glucose tolerance test. NIDDM isdiagnosed based on recognized criteria (American Diabetes Association,Physician's Guide to Insulin-Dependent (Type I) Diabetes, 1988; AmericanDiabetes Association, Physician's Guide to Non-Insulin-Dependent (TypeII) Diabetes, 1988). The optimal dose of a particular biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound composition for a particular subject canbe determined in the clinical setting by a skilled clinician.

Chronic Kidney Disease, Diabetic Nephropathy, Macular Degeneration andDiabetes-Associated Conditions

The compositions and methods provided herein can be used to prevent ortreat kidney diseases. Diabetes is the most common cause of chronickidney disease and kidney failure, accounting for nearly 44 percent ofnew cases. Even when diabetes is controlled, the disease can lead tochronic kidney disease and kidney failure. Most people with diabetes donot develop chronic kidney disease that is severe enough to progress tokidney failure. Nearly 24 million people in the United States havediabetes, and nearly 180,000 people are living with kidney failure as aresult of diabetes. High blood pressure, or hypertension, is a majorfactor in the development of kidney problems in people with diabetes.

Accumulation of the glomerular mesangial extracellular matrix (ECM)leading to glomerulosclerosis is a common finding in diabeticnephropathy and other chronic kidney diseases. Several lines of evidenceindicate that ECM accumulation in such chronic renal diseases resultsfrom both increased synthesis and decreased degradation of ECMcomponents and it is widely accepted that ECM degradation in glomeruliand glomerular cells is mediated by a plasminogenactivator-plasmin-matrix metalloproteinase-2 (MMP)-2 cascade. Inaddition, a variety of studies have reported decreased plasminogenactivator (PA) activity, decreased plasmin activity, or increasedconcentrations of PA inhibitor 1 (PAI-1; the major PA inhibitor), inglomeruli obtained from animals with experimentally induced glomerularinjuries known to result in mesangial matrix accumulation (Baricos, etal., “Extracellular Matrix Degradation by Cultured Mesangial Cells:Mediators and Modulators” (2003) Exp. Biol. Med. 228:1018-1022).

Macular degeneration (AMD) is the loss of photoreceptors in the portionof the central retina, termed the macula, responsible for high-acuityvision. Degeneration of the macula is associated with abnormaldeposition of extracellular matrix components and other debris in themembrane between the retinal pigment epithelium and the vascularchoroid. This debris-like material is termed drusen. Drusen is observedwith a funduscopic eye examination. Normal eyes may have maculas free ofdrusen, yet drusen may be abundant in the retinal periphery. Thepresence of soft drusen in the macula, in the absence of any loss ofmacular vision, is considered an early stage of AMD.

Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) commonly occurs in maculardegeneration in addition to other ocular disorders and is associatedwith proliferation of choroidal endothelial cells, overproduction ofextracellular matrix, and formation of a fibrovascular subretinalmembrane. Retinal pigment epithelium cell proliferation and productionof angiogenic factors appears to effect choroidal neovascularization.

Diabetic retinopathy (DR) is an ocular disorder that develops indiabetes due to thickening of capillary basement membranes and lack ofcontact between pericytes and endothelial cells of the capillaries. Lossof pericytes increases leakage of the capillaries and leads to breakdownof the blood-retina barrier.

Proliferative vitreoretinopathy is associated with cellularproliferation of cellular and fibrotic membranes within the vitreousmembranes and on the surfaces of the retina. Retinal pigment epitheliumcell proliferation and migration is common with this ocular disorder.The membranes associated with proliferative vitreoretinopathy containextracellular matrix components such as collagen types I, II, and IV andfibronectin, and become progressively fibrotic.

Compositions of the embodiments described herein can be, as needed,administered in combination with one or more standard therapeutictreatments known in the art. For example, for treatment of diabeticnephropathy, compounds of the present invention can be administered incombination with, for example, ACE inhibitors, angiotensin II receptorblockers (ARBS) or any other conventional therapy such as, for example,glucose management.

Obesity and Eating Disorders

Further provided herein are compositions and methods that can be usedfor weight loss or to prevent or treat obesity. Central obesity,characterized by its high waist to hip ratio, is an important risk formetabolic syndrome. Metabolic syndrome, as described above, is acombination of medical disorders which often includes diabetes mellitustype 2, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, and triglycerideconcentrations (Grundy S M (2004), J. Clin. Endocrinol. Metab. 89(6):2595-600). Obesity and other eating disorders are described in, e.g.,U.S. Pat. App. Pub. No. 2009/0062193, “Compositions and Methods for theControl, Prevention and Treatment of Obesity and Eating Disorders.”

“Overweight” and “obesity” are both labels for ranges of weight that aregreater than what is generally considered healthy for a given height.The terms also identify ranges of weight that have been shown toincrease the likelihood of certain diseases and other health problems.An adult who has a BMI of between 25 and 25.9 is generally consideredoverweight. An adult who has a BMI of 30 or higher is generallyconsidered obese. However, anyone who needs or wishes to reduce bodyweight or prevent body weight gain can be considered to be overweight orobese. Morbid obesity typically refers to a state in which the BMI is 40or greater. In embodiments of the methods described herein, subjectshave a BMI of less than about 40. In embodiments of the methodsdescribed herein, subjects have a BMI of less than about 35. Inembodiments of the methods described herein, subjects have a BMI of lessthan about 35 but greater than about 30. In other embodiments, subjectshave a BMI of less than about 30 but greater than about 27. In otherembodiments, subjects have a BMI of less than about 27 but greater thanabout 25. In embodiments, the subject may be suffering from or besusceptible to a condition associated with eating such as binge eatingor food cravings.

Conditions, disorders or diseases relating to mental health, such assadness, stress, grief, anxiety, anxiety disorder (e.g., generalizedanxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, panic disorder,post-traumatic stress disorder or social anxiety disorder or a mooddisorder (e.g., depression, bipolar disorder, dysthymic disorder andcyclothymic disorder), may be diagnosed by mental health professionals.Similarly, measures of feelings of happiness, well-being or contentmentmay be made by mental health professionals.

A “subject’ may include any mammal, including humans. A “subject” mayalso include other mammals kept as pets or livestock (e.g., dogs, cats,horses, cows, sheep, pigs, goats). Subjects who may benefit from themethods provided herein may be overweight or obese; however, they mayalso be lean. Subjects who may benefit from the methods provided hereinmay be desirous of losing weight or may have an eating disorder, such asbinge eating, or an eating condition, such as food cravings. Subjectswho may benefit from the methods provided herein may be desirous ofmodifying food preferences. They may have a metabolic disorder orcondition in addition to these conditions. Exemplary metabolic disordersinclude diabetes, metabolic syndrome, insulin-resistance, anddyslipidemia. Subjects can be of any age. Accordingly, these disorderscan be found in young adults and adults (e.g., those aged 65 or under)as well as infants, children, adolescents, and the elderly (e.g., thoseover the age of 65).

By “metabolic rate” is meant the amount of energy liberated/expended perunit of time. Metabolism per unit time can be estimated by foodconsumption, energy released as heat, or oxygen used in metabolicprocesses. It is generally desirable to have a higher metabolic ratewhen one wants to lose weight. For example, a person with a highmetabolic rate may be able to expend more energy (and burn morecalories) to perform an activity than a person with a low metabolic ratefor that activity.

As used herein, “lean mass” or “lean body mass” refers to muscle andbone. Lean body mass does not necessarily indicate fat free mass. Leanbody mass contains a small percentage of fat (roughly 3%) within thecentral nervous system (brain and spinal cord), marrow of bones, andinternal organs. Lean body mass is measured in terms of density. Methodsof measuring fat mass and lean mass include, but are not limited to,underwater weighing, air displacement plethysmograph, x-ray, dual-energyx-ray absorptiometry (DEXA) scans, MRIs and CT scans. In one embodiment,fat mass and lean mass is measured using underwater weighing.

By “fat distribution” is meant the location of fat deposits in the body.Such locations of fat deposition include subcutaneous, visceral andectopic fat depots.

By “subcutaneous fat” is meant the deposit of lipids just below theskin's surface. The amount of subcutaneous fat in a subject can bemeasured using any method available for the measurement of subcutaneousfat. Methods of measuring subcutaneous fat are known in the art, forexample, those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,530,886.

By “visceral fat” is meant the deposit of fat as intra-abdominal adiposetissue. Visceral fat surrounds vital organs and can be metabolized bythe liver to produce blood cholesterol. Visceral fat has been associatedwith increased risks of conditions such as polycystic ovary syndrome,metabolic syndrome and cardiovascular diseases.

By “ectopic fat storage” is meant lipid deposits within and aroundtissues and organs that constitute the lean body mass (e.g., skeletalmuscle, heart, liver, pancreas, kidneys, blood vessels). Generally,ectopic fat storage is an accumulation of lipids outside classicaladipose tissue depots in the body.

Fat mass can be expressed as a percentage of the total body mass. Insome aspects, the fat mass is reduced by at least 1%, at least 5%, atleast 10%, at least 15%, at least 20%, or at least 25% over the courseof a treatment. In one aspect, the subject's lean mass is not decreasedover the course of a treatment.

In another aspect, the subject's lean mass is maintained or increasedover the course of a treatment. In another aspect, the subject is on areduced calorie diet or restricted diet. By “reduced calorie diet” ismeant that the subject is ingesting fewer calories per day than comparedto the same subject's normal diet. In one instance, the subject isconsuming at least 50 fewer calories per day. In other instances, thesubject is consuming at least 100, 150 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, 600,700, 800, 900, 1000 fewer calories per day. In some embodiments, themethod involves the metabolism of visceral fat or ectopic fat or both ata rate of at least about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, or 50%,greater than for subcutaneous fat. In one aspect, the methods result ina favorable fat distribution. In one embodiment, favorable fatdistribution is an increased ratio of subcutaneous fat to visceral fat,ectopic fat, or both. In one aspect, the method involves an increase inlean body mass, for example, as a result of an increase in muscle cellmass. In one embodiment, the amount of subcutaneous fat is reduced in asubject by at least about 5%. In certain embodiments, the amount ofsubcutaneous fat is reduced by at least about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%40%, or 50% compared to the subject prior to administration of abiguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition.

The methods described herein can be used to reduce the amount ofvisceral fat in a subject. In one instance, the visceral fat is reducedin a subject by at least about 5%. In other instances, the visceral fatis reduced in a subject by at least about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30% 40%,or 50% compared to the subject prior to administration of a biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound composition. Visceral fat can be measuredthrough any means available to determine the amount of visceral fat in asubject. Such methods include, for example, abdominal tomography bymeans of CT scanning and MRI. Other methods for determining visceral fatare described, for example, in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,864,415, 6,850,797, and6,487,445.

In one embodiment, a method for preventing the accumulation of ectopicfat or reducing the amount of ectopic fat in a subject is provided,wherein the method comprises administering, to a subject in needthereof, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositioneffective to prevent accumulation of ectopic fat or to reduce the amountof ectopic fat in the subject. It is understood that a treatment can bea series of individual doses, or a treatment regimen, provided to thesubject over a period of time. In one instance, the amount of ectopicfat is reduced in a subject by at least about 5% compared to theuntreated subject. In other instances, the amount of ectopic fat isreduced by at least about 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30% 40%, or 50%.Alternatively, the amount of ectopic fat is proportionally reduced 5%,10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, or 100% incomparison to subcutaneous fat in a subject. Ectopic fat can be measuredin a subject using any method available for measuring ectopic fat.

In another embodiment, methods for altering anthropometric parameters,e.g., waist circumference, hip circumference, and waist-to-hip ratio areprovided. Waist circumference is a measure of abdominal obesity. In oneembodiment, methods for reducing waist circumference of a subject areprovided, wherein the method comprises administering, to a subject inneed thereof, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositionin an amount effective to reduce the waist circumference of the subject.In one embodiment, the waist circumference of the subject is reduced byat least about 1%. In certain embodiments, the waist circumference ofthe subject is reduced by at least about 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%. 9%or 10% compared to the subject prior to administration of a biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound composition provided herein. In oneembodiment, the waist circumference of the subject is reduced by atleast about 1 cm. In other embodiments, the waist circumference of thesubject is reduced by at least about 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, or 6 cmcompared to the subject prior to administration of a biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound composition.

In another embodiment, methods for reducing hip circumference of asubject are provided, wherein the method comprises administering, to asubject in need thereof, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcomposition provided herein in an amount effective to reduce the hipcircumference of the subject. In one embodiment, the hip circumferenceof the subject is reduced by at least about 1%. In certain embodiments,the waist circumference of the subject is reduced by at least about 2%,3%, 4%, 5%, or 6% compared to the subject prior to administration of abiguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition. In oneembodiment, the waist circumference of the subject is reduced by atleast about 1 cm. In certain embodiments, the waist circumference of thesubject is reduced by at least about 2 cm, 3 cm, 4 cm, 5 cm, or 6 cmcompared to the subject prior to administration of a biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound composition.

Also provided are methods to reduce weight in a morbidly obese subjectby first reducing the subject's weight to a level below that of beingmorbidly obese, then administering an effective amount of a biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound composition to further reduce thesubject's weight. Methods for reducing a subject's weight to being belowthat of morbid obesity include reducing caloric intake, increasingphysical activity, drug therapy, bariatric surgery, such as gastricbypass surgery, or any combinations of the preceding methods. In oneaspect, administering the treatment results in reduced caloric intake,which further reduces the weight of the subject. In another embodiment,methods are provided for reducing the body mass index (BMI) in a subjecthaving a BMI of 40 or less by administering a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound composition in an amount and regimen effective tofurther reduce the subject's weight. In another embodiment, methods areprovided for reducing the body mass index (BMI) in a subject having aBMI of 35 or less by administering a biguanide or related heterocycliccompound composition in an amount and regimen effective to furtherreduce the subject's weight.

In embodiments, methods for reducing the risk of developing metabolicdisorders are provided, where the method comprises administering to thesubject a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition in anamount effective to reduce the weight or control the blood glucose of asubject. Also provided herein, are methods for maintaining a healthy ornormal weight and/or glucose concentrations, where the method comprisesadministering to the subject a biguanide or related heterocycliccompound composition in an amount effective maintaining a healthy ornormal weight and/or glucose concentrations.

In another embodiment, methods for controlling or modifying eatingbehaviors are provided, wherein the methods comprise administering, to asubject in need thereof, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcomposition effective to control or modify an eating behavior by thesubject. In one embodiment, methods for controlling binge eating areprovided, where the methods comprise administering, to a subject in needthereof, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition in anamount effect to control or curb binge eating by the subject. In oneembodiment, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition isadministered at times of the day when the subject is most likely tobinge eat. In one aspect, binge eating is characterized by 1) eating, ina discrete period of time (e.g., within any 2-hour period), an amount offood that is definitely larger than most people would eat during asimilar period of time and under similar circumstances and 2) a sense oflack of control over eating during the episode (e.g., a feeling that onecannot stop eating or control what or how much one is eating). Thereduction of binge eating includes a reduction in the frequency of bingeeating episodes, the duration of binge eating episodes, the total amountconsumed during a binge eating episode, difficulty in resisting theonset of a binge eating episode, and any combination thereof, ascompared to as compared to such frequency, duration, amount andresistance in the absence of the biguanide or related heterocycliccompound composition. For example, in one embodiment, a method maycomprise a reduction in the frequency of binge eating episodes. Inanother embodiment, a method may comprise a reduction in the duration ofbinge eating episodes. In yet another embodiment, a method may comprisea reduction in the total amount consumed during a binge-eating episode.In yet another embodiment, a method may comprise a reduction indifficulty resisting the onset of a binge-eating episode.

Some of the signs of binge eating include eating large amounts of foodwhen not physically hungry, rapid eating, hiding of food because theperson feels embarrassed about how much he or she is eating, eatinguntil uncomfortably full, or any combination thereof. Many binge eatersare emotional eaters, i.e. their binge eating is triggered by theiremotional state (e.g., some binge eaters eat when they are sad, some eatwhen they are happy, and some eat when they are under stress). A largenumber of binge eaters suffer from anxiety disorders, such asobsessive-compulsive disorder; impulse control problems; or personalitydisorders, such as borderline personality disorder or depression. In oneembodiment, the binge eating is in response to stressed conditions.Other binge eaters are substance abusers, such as drug abusers oralcohol abusers. Not everyone who has a binge eating disorder isoverweight, such as those binge eaters diagnosed with bulimia.

Subjects who binge eat often do so at particular times of the day, andthus treatment should be adjusted according to when the subject is mostlikely to binge eat. For example, if the subject binge eats mostly after7 p.m. at night, the subject should be administered a biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound composition at or shortly before 7 p.m. Inone embodiment, the subject is administered a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound composition at the time they are susceptible tobinge eating. In certain embodiments, the subject is administered abiguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition at least about 5minutes, at least about 15 minutes, at least about 30 minutes, at leastabout 45 minutes, at least about 1 hour, at least about 1 hour and 30minutes, or at least about 2 hours before they are susceptible to bingeeating. An effective amount of a biguanide or related heterocycliccompound composition in this embodiment is an amount effective to curbor control the subject's desire to binge eat. Therefore, the effectiveamount of a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition willchange dependent upon the subject and the level of their desire to bingeeat. Furthermore, if a subject's desire to binge eat is less at onepoint in the day than at another, the dosage can be adjusted accordinglyto provide a lower dose at the times of the day the subject has a lowerdesire to binge eat, and to provide a higher dose at the times of theday the subject has a higher desire to binge eat. In one embodiment, thesubject is administered a peak dosage of a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound composition at the time they have a high desire tobinge eat. In certain embodiments, the subject is administered a peakdosage of a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition atleast about 5 minutes, at least about 15 minutes, at least about 30minutes, at least about 45 minutes, at least about 1 hour, at leastabout 1 hour and 30 minutes, or at least about 2 hours before they havea high desire to binge eat.

In another embodiment, methods for modifying food preferences in asubject are provided, wherein methods comprise administering, to asubject in need thereof, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcomposition in an amount effective to modify food preferences in thesubject. The chemosensory receptor targeted by a composition caninfluence the subject's desire to eat the corresponding food.

The modifications in food preferences may include a decrease in apreference for such foods, a decrease in the amount of intake of suchfoods, an enhancement of a preference of one food type over another foodtype, changes in frequency of cravings for such foods, duration ofcravings for such foods, intensity of cravings for such foods,difficulty in resisting cravings for such foods, frequency of eating inresponse to cravings for such foods, and any combination thereof, ascompared to such frequency, duration, intensity, or resistance in theabsence of treatment. In yet another embodiment, a method may comprisereducing a subject's preference for sweet foods, savory foods, high fatfoods, salty foods, sour foods, and any combination thereof.

In one embodiment, a method may comprise reducing a subject's frequencyof cravings for sweet foods, savory foods, high fat foods, salty foods,sour foods, and any combination thereof. In another embodiment, a methodmay comprise reducing a subject's duration of cravings for sweet foodssavory foods, high fat foods, salty foods, sour foods, and anycombination thereof, etc. In yet another embodiment, a method maycomprise reducing a subject's intensity of cravings for sweet foods,savory foods, high fat foods, salty foods, sour foods, and anycombination thereof. In yet another embodiment, a method may comprisereducing a subject's difficulty in resisting cravings for sweet foods,savory foods, high fat foods, salty foods, sour foods, and anycombination thereof. In yet another embodiment, a method may comprisereducing a subject's frequency of eating in response to cravings forsweet foods, savory foods, high fat foods, salty foods, sour foods, andany combination thereof. In yet another embodiment, a method maycomprise reducing a subject's intake of sweet foods, savory foods, highfat foods, salty foods, sour foods, and any combination thereof.

Treatment of Bowel Damage

The compositions and methods provided herein can be used for thetreatment of short bowel syndrome and compromised intestinal function(e.g., small bowel resection, colitis, enteritis, inflammatory bowelsyndrome, ischemic bowel, and chemotherapeutic injury to the intestine).Short bowel syndrome refers to the collection of symptoms caused byintestinal resection. Its symptoms include intractable diarrhea,dehydration, malabsorption of macronutrients, weight loss, malabsorptionof vitamins and trace elements and malnutrition. GLP-2 is known to slowgastric emptying, increase intestinal transit time and inhibit shamfeeding-induced gastric acid secretion. Patients with jejunostomy oftenhave impaired meal-stimulated GLP-2 responses, and thus impairedabsorption. Administration of GLP-2 in patients with jejunostomy hasbeen shown to improve intestinal absorption of energy and intestinal wetweight absorption as well as prolong gastric emptying of solids andliquids. See Jeppesen, P. B., 2003, “Clinical significance of GLP-2 inshort-bowel syndrome,” Journal of Nutrition 133 (11): 3721-4. GLP-2 isalso reported to stimulate intestinal growth in addition to inhibitinggastric secretion and gastric motility. Burrin et al., 2001,“Glucagon-like peptide 2: a nutrient-responsive gut growth factor,”Journal of Nutrition 131 (3): 709. Modulation of GLP-2 secretion throughthe administration of the compositions described herein can provide forthe treatment of short bowel syndrome and compromised intestinalfunction, including but not limited to, small bowel resection, colitis,enteritis, inflammatory bowel syndrome, ischemic bowel, andchemotherapeutic injury to the intestine.

Delivery to Specific Intestinal Locations

The density of L-cells increases along the length of the intestine withthe lowest density at the level of the duodenum and greatest in therectum. There is an approximately 80-fold increase in L-cell densityfrom the duodenum to rectum as assessed by peptide YY content. SeeAdrian et al., Gastroenterology 1985; 89:1070-77. Given that nutrientsor bile salts would not be expected to reach the colon much less therectum, the mechanism of these L-cells in the regulation of metabolismis not completely clear. While speculative, it is possible that productsproduced by the colonic flora could inform the gut of the microbial massand composition via L-cell sensors and in turn this information could berelayed to the CNS via hormonal and neural signals emanating from thecolonic and rectal area which is innervated quite differently than thesmall intestine. Regardless of the role of neuroendocrine cells in thecolon and rectum, the basis of this invention is to stimulate thesecells wherever they may be (for example, different individuals, andpatients with diabetes, might be expected to have differentdistributions and numbers of these cells) via the presentation of one ormore stimuli of taste and/or nutrient receptors and other stimulants forthe purpose of treating metabolic disorders.

The upper intestine has different EECs than the lower intestine. Forexample, CCK and GIP are released from the upper and not typically fromthe lower intestine, corresponding to I- and K-cells predominantly beinglocated in the upper gut. Conversely, L-cells are located predominantlyin the lower intestine. Hormonal release patterns are not onlychemosensory receptor ligand- and combination-specific but alsosite-specific in the intestine.

In embodiments, it is contemplated that sensing and/or metabolism ofnutrients in the upper intestine amplifies certain responses from thelower intestine. Moreover, L-cells located in the upper intestine canbehave differently than those in the lower region providing anotherlevel control for targeting biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds.For example, in embodiments, certain biguanide or related heterocycliccompound combinations or biguanide and chemosensory receptor ligandcombinations delivered to the upper intestine may be more favorable to ahormonal release pattern for the treatment of one disorder, e.g.,diabetes, whereas that same combination delivered to the lower intestinemay be more appropriate for a different disorder, e.g., obesity. It isalso contemplated that the same combination can produce a more favorablehormonal profile when presented to both the upper and lower intestine.

Thus, the embodiments described herein provide a treatment methodcomprising a combination of biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundsthat is engineered to deliver certain of the biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds to one or more locations of the intestine, forexample, to optimize hormonal patterns achieved.

In some of the embodiments provided herein, the biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds are delivered to one or more regions of theintestine. In some of the embodiments provided herein, the biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compounds are delivered to one or more regionsdownstream or distal of the stomach. In certain embodiments, thebiguanide or related heterocyclic compounds are delivered to one or moreregions of the upper intestine. In certain embodiments, the biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compounds are delivered to the duodenum, jejunum,ileum, or a combination thereof. In certain embodiments, the biguanideor related heterocyclic compounds are delivered to one or more regionsof the lower intestine. In certain embodiments, the biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds are delivered to the caecum, colon, rectum, or acombination thereof. In yet other embodiments, the biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds are delivered downstream or distal of theduodenum. In additional embodiments, the biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds are delivered downstream or distal of thejejunum.

In yet other embodiments, biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundsare delivered to one or more regions of the upper intestine and one ormore regions of the lower intestine. For example, biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds can be delivered to the duodenum and the colon.In another non-limiting example, biguanide or related heterocycliccompounds can be delivered to the duodenum, jejunum, ileum and colon.More embodiments are described under Formulations.

Administration of biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds to certainregions or locations of the intestine is achieved by any known method.In certain embodiments, enteral administration of biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds is performed, e.g., in rodents or man.Intubation/cannulation is performed in lightly anaesthetized patientswith silastic tubing. Tubing is placed in the post-pyloric region and inthe rectum and advanced as deeply as possible. These locations areexplored separately and together as foods sensed in the upper intestinecan provide signals to the lower intestine and vice versa. In certainembodiments, biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds are formulatedin a modified release composition for oral delivery that delivers thebiguanide or related heterocyclic compounds to targeted regions orlocations of the intestine. In yet other embodiments, biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compounds are formulated for rectal delivery as asuppository, douche, wash, or the like for delivery to targeted regionsor locations of the intestinal tract, e.g., rectum or colon.

When delivery of biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds is to twoor more regions of the gastrointestinal tract, the compounds deliveredmay be in any proportion and manner. In some embodiments, certainbiguanide or related heterocyclic compounds are be targeted anddelivered to specific regions, such as for example, one compound to theileum and another compound to the colon or, in another example,compound(s) to the stomach, different compound(s) to the duodenum andother compound(s) to the colon. In certain embodiments, biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compounds are delivered in certain proportions ineach region of the gut.

Administration

Combination Therapies

The compositions of the embodiments described herein may beco-administered with known therapies for the treatment of any of theconditions described herein. Co-administration can also provide foradditive or synergistic effects, resulting in the need for lower dosagesof a known therapy, the compositions described herein, or both.Additional benefits of co-administration include the reduction intoxicities associated with any of the known therapies.

Co-administration includes simultaneous administration in separatecompositions, administration at different times in separatecompositions, or administration in a composition in which both agentsare present. Thus, in some embodiments, compositions described hereinand a known therapy are administered in a single treatment. In someembodiments, the compositions described herein and a known therapy areadmixed in a resulting composition. In some embodiments, compositionsdescribed herein and the known therapy are administered in separatecompositions or administrations.

Administration of compositions described herein and known therapiesdescribed herein may be by any suitable means. Administration of acomposition described herein and a second compound (e.g., diabetes drugor obesity drug) may be by any suitable means. If the compositionsdescribed herein and a second compound are administered as separatecompositions, they may be administered by the same route or by differentroutes. If the compositions described herein and a second compound areadministered in a single composition, they may be administered by anysuitable route such as, for example, oral administration. In certainembodiments, compositions of biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundand second compounds can be administered to the same region or differentregions of the gastrointestinal tract. For example, biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds can be administered in combination with ananti-diabetic drug to be delivered to the duodenum, jejunum, ileum, orcolon.

Therapies, drugs and compounds useful for the treatment of diabetes,metabolic syndrome (including glucose intolerance, insulin resistance,and dyslipidemia), and/or diseases or conditions associated therewithmay be administered with the biguanide or related heterocycliccompounds. Diabetic therapies drugs and compounds include, but are notlimited to, those that decrease triglyceride concentrations, decreaseglucose concentrations, and/or modulate insulin (e.g. stimulate insulinproduction, mimic insulin, enhance glucose-dependent insulin secretion,suppress glucagon secretion or action, improve insulin action or insulinsensitizers, or are exogenous forms of insulin).

Drugs that decrease triglyceride level include but are not limited toascorbic acid, asparaginase, clofibrate, colestipol, fenofibratemevastatin, pravastatin, simvastatin, fluvastatin, or omega-3 fattyacid. Drugs that decrease LDL cholesterol level include but are notlimited to clofibrate, gemfibrozil, and fenofibrate, nicotinic acid,mevinolin, mevastatin, pravastatin, simvastatin, fluvastatin,lovastatin, cholestyrine, colestipol or probucol.

In another aspect, compositions of the embodiments described herein maybe administered in combination with glucose-lowering compounds.

The medication classes of thiazolidinediones (also called glitazones),sulfonylureas, meglitinides, biguanides, alpha-glucosidase inhibitors,DPP-IV inhibitors, and incretin mimetics have been used as adjunctivetherapies for hyperglycemia and diabetes mellitus (type 2) and relateddiseases.

Drugs that decrease glucose level include but are not limited toglipizides, glyburides, exenatide (Byetta®), incretins, sitagliptin(Januvia®), pioglitizone, glimepiride, rosiglitazone, metformin,vildagliptin, saxagliptin (Onglyza™), sulfonylureas, meglitinide (e.g.,Prandin®) glucosidase inhibitor, biguanides (e.g., Glucophage®),repaglinide, acarbose, troglitazone, nateglinide, natural, synthetic orrecombinant insulin and derivatives thereof, and amylin and amylinderivatives.

When administered sequentially, the combination may be administered intwo or more administrations. In an alternative embodiment, it ispossible to administer one or more biguanide or related heterocycliccompounds and one or more additional active ingredients by differentroutes. The skilled artisan will also recognize that a variety of activeingredients may be administered in combination with one or morebiguanide or related heterocyclic compounds that may act to augment orsynergistically enhance the control prevention, amelioration,attenuation, or treatment of obesity or eating disorders or conditions.

According to the methods provided herein, when co-administered with atleast one other obesity reducing (or anti-obesity) or weight reducingdrug, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound(s) may be: (1)co-formulated and administered or delivered simultaneously in a combinedformulation; (2) delivered by alternation or in parallel as separateformulations; or (3) by any other combination therapy regimen known inthe art. When delivered in alternation therapy, the methods provided maycomprise administering or delivering the active ingredientssequentially, e.g., in separate solution, emulsion, suspension, tablets,pills or capsules, or by different injections in separate syringes. Ingeneral, during alternation therapy, an effective dosage of each activeingredient is administered sequentially, i.e., serially, whereas insimultaneous therapy, effective dosages of two or more activeingredients are administered together. Various sequences of intermittentcombination therapy may also be used.

In certain embodiments, compositions provided herein may be used withother commercially available diet aids or other anti-obesity agents,such as, by way of example, PYY and PYY agonists, GLP-1 and GLP-1agonists, a DPP-IV inhibitor, CCK and CCK agonists, exendin and exendinagonists, GIP and GIP agonists, amylin and amylin agonists, ghrelinmodulators (e.g., inhibitors such as but not limited to Cortistatin-8,AEZ-123 (JMV2959) under development by AEtema Zentaris Inc.,[D-Arg(1),D-Phe(5),D-Trp(7,9),Leu(11)]-substance P, D-Lys3-GHRP-6,YIL-781 and YIL870 under development by Bayer (see, e.g., Esler et al.(2007) Endocrinology 148:5175-85), and EX-1350 under development byElixer Pharmaceuticals) and leptin and leptin agonists. In certaininstances, biguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositionsprovided herein are used in combination with amylin, amylin agonists ormimetics. Exemplary amylin agonists or mimetics include pramlintide andrelated compounds. In certain instances, biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound compositions provided herein are used incombination with leptin, leptin agonists or mimetics. Additional leptinagonists or mimetics can be identified using the methods described byU.S. Pat. No. 7,247,427 which is incorporated by reference herein. Infurther instances, biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcompositions provided herein increase leptin sensitivity and increaseeffectiveness of leptin, leptin agonists or mimetics.

Additional anti-obesity agents for use in the methods provided that arein current development are also of interest in the methods of thepresent invention. Other anti-obesity agents include alone or anycombination of phentermine, fenfluramine, sibutramine, rimonabant,topiramate, zonisamide bupropion, naltrexone, lorcaserin, and orlistat.Therapies, drugs and compounds useful for the treatment of weight loss,binge eating, food addictions and cravings may be administered with thecompositions described herein. For example, the subject may further beadministered at least one other drug which is known to suppress hungeror control appetite. Such therapies drugs and compounds include but arenot limited to phenteramines such as Meridia® and Xenical®. Additionaltherapies, drugs and compounds are known in the art and contemplatedherein.

As such, in one aspect, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundsmay be used as part of a combination therapy for the control, preventionor treatment of obesity or eating disorders or conditions. Compoundsused as part of a combination therapy to treat obesity or reduce weightinclude, but are not limited to, central nervous system agents thataffect neurotransmitters or neural ion channels, includingantidepressants (bupropion), noradrenalin reuptake inhibitors(GW320659), selective serotonin 2c receptor agonists, selective 5HT 2creceptor agonists, antiseizure agents (topiramate, zonisamide), somedopamine antagonists, and cannabinoid-1 receptor antagonists (CB-1receptor antagonists) (rimonabant); leptin/insulin/central nervoussystem pathway agents, including leptin analogues, leptin transportand/or leptin receptor promoters, ciliary neurotrophic factor (Axokine),neuropeptide Y and agouti-related peptide antagonists,pro-opiomelanocortin and cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcriptpromoters, .alpha.-melanocyte-stimulating hormone analogues,melanocoritin-4 receptor agonists, and agents that affect insulinmetabolism/activity, which include protein-tyrosine phosphatase-1Binhibitors, peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-.gamma. receptorantagonists, short-acting bromocriptine (ergoset), somatostatin agonists(octreotide), and adiponectin/Acrp30 (Famoxin or Fatty Acid MetabolicOxidation Inducer); gastrointestinal-neural pathway agents, includingthose that increase cholecystokinin activity (CCK), PYY activity, NPYactivity, and PP activity, increase glucagon-like peptide-1 activity(exendin 4, liraglutide, dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitors), and thosethat decrease ghrelin activity, as well as amylin analogues(pramlintide); agents that may increase resting metabolic rate(selective 3-3 stimulators/agonist, uncoupling protein homologues, andthyroid receptor agonists); other more diverse agents, including melaninconcentrating hormone antagonists, phytostanol analogues, functionaloils, P57, amylase inhibitors, growth hormone fragments, syntheticanalogues of dehydroepiandrosterone sulfate, antagonists of adipocyte11B-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 1 activity,corticotropin-releasing hormone agonists, inhibitors of fatty acidsynthesis (cerulenin and C75), carboxypeptidase inhibitors,indanone/indanols, aminosterols (trodusquemine/trodulamine), and othergastrointestinal lipase inhibitors (ATL962); amphetamines, such asdextroamphetamine; other sympathomimetic adrenergic agents, includingphentermine, benzphetamine, phendimetrazine, mazindol, anddiethylpropion.

Other compounds include ecopipam; oxyntomodulin (OM); inhibitors ofglucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP); gastrin-releasingpeptide; neuromedin B; enterostatin; amfebutamone, SR-58611; CP-045598;AOD-0604; QC-BT16; rGLP-1; 1426 (HMR-1426); N-5984; ISIS-113715;solabegron; SR-147778; Org-34517; melanotan-II; cetilistat; c-2735;c-5093; c-2624; APD-356; radafaxine; fluasterone; GP-389255; 856464;S-2367; AVE-1625; T-71; oleoyl-estrone; peptide YY [3-36] intranasal;androgen receptor agonists; PYY 3-36; DOV-102677; tagatose; SLV-319;1954 (Aventis Pharma AG); oxyntomodulin, Thiakis; bromocriptine, PLIVA;diabetes/hyperlipidemia therapy, Yissum; CKD-502; thyroid receptor betaagonists; beta-3 adrenoceptor agonist; CDK-A agonists; galaninantagonist; dopamine D1/D2 agonists; melanocortin modulators;verongamine; neuropeptide Y antagonists; melanin-concentrating hormonereceptor antagonists; dual PPAR alpha/gamma agonists; CGEN-P-4; kinaseinhibitors; human MCH receptor antagonists; GHS-R antagonists; ghrelinreceptor agonists; DG70 inhibitors; cotinine; CRF-BP inhibitors;urocortin agonists; UCL-2000; impentamine; .beta.-3 adrenergic receptor;pentapeptide MC4 agonists; trodusquemine; GT-2016; C-75; CPOP; MCH-1receptor antagonists; RED-103004; aminosterols; orexin-1 antagonists;neuropeptide Y5 receptor antagonists; DRF-4158; PT-15; PTPaseinhibitors; A37215; SA-0204; glycolipid metabolites; MC-4 agonist;produlestan; PTP-1B inhibitors; GT-2394; neuropeptide Y5 antagonists;melanocortin receptor modulators; MLN-4760; PPAR gamma/delta dualagonists; NPY5RA-972; 5-HT2C receptor agonist; neuropeptide Y5 receptorantagonists (phenyl urea analogs); AGRP/MC4 antagonists; neuropeptide Y5antagonists (benzimidazole); glucocorticoid antagonists; MCHR1antagonists; Acetyl-CoA carboxylase inhibitors; R-1496; HOB1 modulators;NOX-B11; peptide YY 3-36 (eligen); 5-HT 1 modulators; pancreatic lipaseinhibitors; GRC-1087; CB-1 antagonists; MCH-1 antagonists; LY-448100;bombesin BRS3 agonists; ghrelin antagonists; MC4 antagonists;stearoyl-CoA desaturase modulators; H3 histamine antagonists; PPARpanagonists; EP-01492; hormone-sensitive lipase inhibitors; fattyacid-binding protein 4 inhibitors; thiolactone derivatives; proteintyrosine phosphatase 1B inhibitors; MCH-1 antagonist; P-64; PPAR gammaligands; melanin concentrating hormone antagonists; thiazolegastroprokinetics; PA-452; T-226296; A-331440; immunodrug vaccines;diabetes/obesity therapeutics (Bioagency, Biofrontera Discovery GmbH);P-7 (Genfit); DT-011 M; PTP1B inhibitor; anti-diabetic peptideconjugates; KATP agonists; obesity therapeutics (Lexicon); 5-HT2agonists; MCH-1 receptor antagonists; GMAD-1/GMAD-2; STG-a-MD;neuropeptide Y antagonist; angiogenesis inhibitors; G protein-coupledreceptor agonists; nicotinic therapeutics (ChemGenex); anti-obesityagents (Abbott); neuropeptide Y modulators; melanin concentratinghormone; GW-594884A; MC-4R agonist; histamine H3 antagonists; orphanGPCR modulators; MITO-3108; NLC-002; HE-2300; IGF/IBP-2-13; 5-HT2Cagonists; ML-22952; neuropeptide Y receptor antagonists; AZ-40140;anti-obesity therapy (Nisshin Flour); GNTI; melanocortin receptormodulators; alpha-amylase inhibitors; neuropeptide Y1 antagonist; beta-3adrenoceptor agonists; ob gene products (Eli Lilly & Co.); SWR-0342-SA;beta-3 adrenoceptor agonist; SWR-0335; SP-18904; oral insulin mimetics;beta 3 adrenoceptor agonists; NPY-1 antagonists; .beta.-3 agonists;obesity therapeutics (7TM Pharma); 11beta-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase(HSD)1 inhibitors; QRX-431; E-6776; RI-450; melanocortin-4 antagonists;melanocortin 4 receptor agonists; obesity therapeutics (CuraGen); leptinmimetics; A-74498; second-generation leptin; NBI-103; CL-314698;CP-114271; beta-3 adrenoceptor agonists; NMI-8739; UCL-1283; BMS-192548;CP-94253; PD-160170; nicotinic agonist; LG-100754; SB-226552; LY-355124;CKD-711; L-751250; PPAR inhibitors; G-protein therapeutics; obesitytherapy (Amylin Pharmaceuticals Inc.); BW-1229; monoclonal antibody(ObeSys/CAT); L-742791; (S)-sibutramine; MBU-23; YM-268; BTS-78050;tubby-like protein genes; genomics (eating disorders; Allelix/Lilly);MS-706; GI-264879A; GW-409890; FR-79620 analogs; obesity therapy(Hybrigenics SA); ICI-198157; ESP-A; 5-HT2C agonists; PD-170292;AIT-202; LG-100641; GI-181771; anti-obesity therapeutics (Genzyme);leptin modulator; GHRH mimetics; obesity therapy (YamanouchiPharmaceutical Co. Ltd.); SB-251023; CP-331684; BIBO-3304;cholesten-3-ones; LY-362884; BRL-48962; NPY-1 antagonists; A-71378;.RTM.-didesmethylsibutramine; amide derivatives; obesity therapeutics(Bristol-Myers Squibb Co.); obesity therapeutics (Ligand PharmaceuticalsInc.); LY-226936; NPY antagonists; CCK-A agonists; FPL-14294; PD-145942;ZA-7114; CL-316243; SR-58878; R-1065; BIBP-3226; HP-228; talibegron;FR-165914; AZM-008; AZM-016; AZM-120; AZM-090; vomeropherin; BMS-187257;D-3800; AZM-131; gene discovery (Axys/Glaxo); BRL-26830A; SX-013; ERRmodulators; adipsin; AC-253; A-71623; A-68552; BMS-210285; TAK-677;MPV-1743; obesity therapeutics (Modex); GI-248573; AZM-134; AZM-127;AZM-083; AZM-132; AZM-115; exopipam; SSR-125180; obesity therapeutics(Melacure Therapeutics AB); BRL-35135; SR-146131; P-57; AZM-140;CGP-71583A; RF-1051; BMS-196085; manifaxine; beta-3 agonists; DMNJ(Korea Research Institute of Bioscience and Biotechnology); BVT-5182;LY-255582; SNX-024; galanin antagonists; neurokinin-3 antagonists;dexfenfluramine; mazindol; diethylpropion; phendimetrazine;benzphetamine; amfebutmone; sertraline; metformin; AOD-9604; ATL-062;BVT-933; GT389-255; SLV319; HE-2500; PEG-axokine; L-796568; and ABT-239.

In some embodiments, compounds for use in combination with a biguanideor related heterocyclic compound composition provided herein includerimonabant, sibutramine, orlistat, PYY or an analog thereof, CB-1antagonist, leptin, phentermine, and exendin analogs. Exemplary dosingranges include phentermine resin (30 mg in the morning), fenfluraminehydrochloride (20 mg three times a day), and a combination ofphentermine resin (15 mg in the morning) and fenfluramine hydrochloride(30 mg before the evening meal), and sibutramine (10-20 mg). Weintraubet al. (1984) Arch. Intern. Med. 144:1143-1148.

In further embodiments, compounds for use in combination with abiguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition provided hereininclude GPR119 agonists (e.g., anandamide; AR-231, 453; MBX-2982;Oleoylethanolamide; PSN-365,963; PSN-632,408; palmitoylethanolamide),GPR120 agonists (e.g., omega-3 fatty acids including, but not limitedto, α-linolenic acid, docosapentaenoic acid, docosahexaenoic acid,eicosatrienoic acid, eicosatetraenoic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid,heneicosapentaenoic acid, hexadecatrienoic acid, stearidonic acid,tetracosahexaenoic acid and tetracosapentaenoic acid), and GPR 40agonists (e.g., free fatty acids including short-, medium-, andlong-chain saturated and unsaturated fatty acids).

In some embodiments, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcomposition provided herein is used as an adjunctive therapy to abariatric surgical procedure. Bariatric surgery is a procedure forweight loss and relates to modifications with the gastrointestinal tractand includes such procedures as gastric banding, sleeve gastrectomy, GIbypass procedure (e.g., roux en Y, biliary duodenal bypass, loop gastricbypass), intragastric balloon, vertical banded, gastroplasty,endoluminal sleeve, biliopancreatic diversion, and the like. In certaininstances, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition isadjunctive to gastric banding. In certain instances, a biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compound composition is adjunctive to GI bypassprocedures. In yet other instances, a biguanide or related heterocycliccompound composition is adjunctive to sleeve gastrectomy. In certainembodiments, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition asan adjunctive therapy to bariatric surgery is administered prior to thebariatric procedure. In certain embodiments, a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound composition as an adjunctive therapy to bariatricsurgery is administered after the bariatric procedure. In certaininstances, when used as adjunctive therapy, the dosage and amounts of abiguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition may be adjustedas needed with respect to the bariatric procedure. For example, amountsof a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound composition administeredas an adjunct therapy to a bariatric procedure may be reduced byone-half of normal dosages or as directed by a medical professional.

Combination therapy can be exploited, for example, in modulatingmetabolic syndrome (or treating metabolic syndrome and its relatedsymptoms, complications and disorders), wherein biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound compositions provided herein can be effectivelyused in combination with, for example, the active agents discussed abovefor modulating, preventing or treating diabetes, obesity,hyperlipidemia, atherosclerosis, and/or their respective relatedsymptoms, complications and disorders.

Formulations

Formulations for the compositions provided herein include those suitablefor oral or rectal administration, and administration although the mostsuitable route can depend upon for example the condition and disorder ofthe recipient. The formulations can conveniently be presented in unitdosage form and can be prepared by any of the methods well known in theart of pharmacy. All methods include the step of bringing intoassociation the active ingredient with the carrier which constitutes oneor more accessory ingredients.

Formulations suitable for oral administration can be presented asdiscrete units such as capsules, cachets or tablets each containing apredetermined amount of the active ingredient; as a powder or granules;as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous liquid or a non-aqueousliquid; or as an oil-in-water liquid emulsion or a water-in-oil liquidemulsion.

Composition preparations which can be used orally include tablets,push-fit capsules made of gelatin, as well as soft, sealed capsules madeof gelatin and a plasticizer, such as glycerol or sorbitol. Tablets canbe made by compression or molding, optionally with one or more accessoryingredients. Compressed tablets can be prepared by compressing in asuitable machine the active ingredient in a free-flowing fonn such as apowder or granules, optionally mixed with binders (e.g., povidone,gelatin, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose), inert diluents, preservative,disintegrant (e.g., sodium starch glycolate, cross-linked povidone,cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose) or lubricating, surfaceactive or dispersing agents. Molded tablets can be made by molding in asuitable machine a mixture of the powdered compound moistened with aninert liquid diluent. The tablets can optionally be coated or scored andcan be formulated so as to provide slow or controlled release of theactive ingredient therein. Tablets can optionally be provided with anenteric coating, to provide release in parts of the gut other than thestomach. All formulations for oral administration should be in dosagessuitable for such administration. The push-fit capsules can contain theactive ingredients in admixture with filler such as lactose, binderssuch as starches, and/or lubricants such as talc or magnesium stearateand, optionally, stabilizers. In soft capsules, the active compounds canbe dissolved or suspended in suitable liquids, such as fatty oils,liquid paraffin, or liquid polyethylene glycols. In addition,stabilizers can be added. Dragee cores are provided with suitablecoatings. For this purpose, concentrated sugar solutions can be used,which can optionally contain gum arabic, talc, polyvinyl pyrrolidone,carbopol gel, polyethylene glycol, and/or titanium dioxide, lacquersolutions, and suitable organic solvents or solvent mixtures. Dyestuffsor pigments can be added to the tablets or Dragee coatings foridentification or to characterize different combinations of activecompound doses.

For buccal or sublingual administration, the compositions can take theform of tablets, lozenges, pastilles, or gels formulated in conventionalmanner. Such compositions can comprise the active ingredient in aflavored basis such as sucrose and acacia or tragacanth. Suchcompositions can be formulated to delivery biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds to a desired area in the gastrointestionalsystem.

It should be understood that in addition to the ingredients particularlymentioned above, the compounds and compositions described herein caninclude other agents conventional in the art having regard to the typeof formulation in question, for example those suitable for oraladministration can include flavoring agents.

The compositions described herein can also contain biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds in a form suitable for oral use, for example, astablets, troches, lozenges, aqueous or oily suspensions, dispersiblepowders or granules, emulsions, hard or soft capsules, or syrups orelixirs. Compositions intended for oral use can be prepared according toany method known to the art for the manufacture of pharmaceuticalcompositions, and such compositions can contain one or more agentsselected from, by way of non-limiting example, sweetening agents,flavoring agents, coloring agents and preserving agents in order toprovide pharmaceutically elegant and palatable preparations.

Tablets contain the active ingredient in admixture with pharmaceuticallyacceptable excipients which are suitable for the manufacture of tablets.These excipients can be, for example, inert diluents, such as calciumcarbonate, sodium carbonate, lactose, calcium phosphate or sodiumphosphate; granulating and disintegrating agents, such asmicrocrystalline cellulose, sodium croscarmellose, corn starch, oralginic acid; binding agents, for example starch, gelatin,polyvinyl-pyrrolidone or acacia, and lubricating agents, for example,magnesium stearate, stearic acid or talc. The tablets can be un-coatedor coated by known techniques to mask the taste of the drug or delaydisintegration and absorption in the gastrointestinal tract and therebyprovide a sustained action over a longer period. For example, a watersoluble taste masking material such as hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose orhydroxypropylcellulose, or a time delay material such as ethylcellulose, or cellulose acetate butyrate can be employed as appropriate.Formulations for oral use can also be presented as hard gelatin capsuleswherein the active ingredient is mixed with an inert solid diluent, forexample, calcium carbonate, calcium phosphate or kaolin, or as softgelatin capsules wherein the active ingredient is mixed with watersoluble carrier such as polyethyleneglycol or an oil medium, for examplepeanut oil, liquid paraffin, or olive oil.

In various embodiments, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcompositions provided herein are in liquid form. Liquid forms include,by way of non-limiting example, neat liquids, solutions, suspensions,dispersions, colloids, foams and the like. In certain instances, liquidforms contain also a nutritional component or base (e.g., derived frommilk, yogurt, shake, or juice). In some aspects, the biguanide orrelated heterocyclic compounds are micronized or as nanoparticles in theliquid form. In certain instances, the biguanide or related heterocycliccompounds are coated to mask the tastant properties. In other instances,the biguanide or related heterocyclic compounds are coated to modifydelivery to the intestine and colon.

Aqueous solutions or suspensions contain the active ingredient(s) inadmixture with excipients suitable for the manufacture of aqueoussuspensions. Such excipients are suspending agents, for example sodiumcarboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose,sodium alginate, polyvinyl-pyrrolidone, gum tragacanth and gum acacia;dispersing or wetting agents can be a naturally-occurring phosphatide,for example lecithin, or condensation products of an alkylene oxide withfatty acids, for example polyoxyethylene stearate, or condensationproducts of ethylene oxide with long chain aliphatic alcohols, forexample heptadecaethylene-oxycetanol, or condensation products ofethylene oxide with partial esters derived from fatty acids and ahexitol such as polyoxyethylene sorbitol monooleate, or condensationproducts of ethylene oxide with partial esters derived from fatty acidsand hexitol anhydrides, for example polyethylene sorbitan monooleate.The aqueous solutions or suspensions can also contain one or morepreservatives, for example ethyl, or n-propyl p-hydroxybenzoate, one ormore coloring agents, one or more flavoring agents, and one or moresweetening agents, such as sucrose, saccharin or aspartame. In certaininstances, the flavoring agents are biguanide or related heterocycliccompounds.

Oily suspensions can be formulated by suspending the activeingredient(s) in a vegetable oil, for example arachis oil, olive oil,sesame oil or coconut oil, or in mineral oil such as liquid paraffin.The oily suspensions can contain a thickening agent, for examplebeeswax, hard paraffin or cetyl alcohol. Sweetening agents such as thoseset forth above, and flavoring agents can be added to provide apalatable oral preparation. These compositions can be preserved by theaddition of an anti-oxidant such as butylated hydroxyanisol oralpha-tocopherol.

Dispersible powders and granules suitable for preparation of an aqueoussolutions or suspension by the addition of water provide the activeingredient in admixture with a dispersing or wetting agent, suspendingagent and one or more preservatives. Suitable dispersing or wettingagents and suspending agents are exemplified by those already mentionedabove. Additional excipients, for example sweetening, flavoring andcoloring agents, can also be present. These compositions can bepreserved by the addition of an anti-oxidant such as ascorbic acid.

Compositions can also be in the form of an oil-in-water emulsion. Theoily phase can be a vegetable oil, for example olive oil or arachis oil,or a mineral oil, for example liquid paraffin or mixtures of these.Suitable emulsifying agents can be naturally-occurring phosphatides, forexample soy bean lecithin, and esters or partial esters derived fromfatty acids and hexitol anhydrides, for example sorbitan monooleate, andcondensation products of the said partial esters with ethylene oxide,for example polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate. The emulsions can alsocontain sweetening agents, flavoring agents, preservatives andantioxidants.

Syrups and elixirs can be formulated with sweetening agents, for exampleglycerol, propylene glycol, sorbitol or sucrose. Such formulations canalso contain a demulcent, a preservative, flavoring and coloring agentsand antioxidant.

Compositions can also be formulated in rectal compositions such assuppositories or retention enemas, e.g., containing conventionalsuppository bases such as cocoa butter, polyethylene glycol, or otherglycerides. These compositions can be prepared by mixing the inhibitorswith a suitable non-irritating excipient which is solid at ordinarytemperatures but liquid at the rectal temperature and will thereforemelt in the rectum to release the drug. Such materials include cocoabutter, glycerinated gelatin, hydrogenated vegetable oils, mixtures ofpolyethylene glycols of various molecular weights and fatty acid estersof polyethylene glycol.

The composition can, for example, be in a form suitable for oraladministration as a tablet, capsule, cachet, pill, lozenge, powder orgranule, sustained release formulations, solution, liquid, orsuspension. The pharmaceutical composition can be in unit dosage formssuitable for single administration of precise dosages. Thepharmaceutical composition will include a conventional pharmaceuticalcarrier or excipient and the compound according to the invention as anactive ingredient. In addition, it can include other medicinal orpharmaceutical agents, carriers, adjuvants, etc.

Suitable carriers include inert diluents or fillers, water and variousorganic solvents. The compositions can, if desired, contain additionalingredients such as flavorings, binders, excipients and the like. Thusfor oral administration, tablets containing various excipients, such ascitric acid can be employed together with various disintegrants such asstarch or other cellulosic material, alginic acid and certain complexsilicates and with binding agents such as sucrose, gelatin and acacia.Additionally, lubricating agents such as magnesium stearate, sodiumlauryl sulfate and tale are often useful for tableting purposes. Otherreagents such as an inhibitor, surfactant or solubilizer, plasticizer,stabilizer, viscosity increasing agent, or film forming agent can alsobe added. Solid compositions of a similar type can also be employed insoft and hard filled gelatin capsules. Materials include lactose or milksugar and high molecular weight polyethylene glycols. When aqueoussuspensions or elixirs are desired for oral administration the activecompound therein can be combined with various sweetening or flavoringagents, coloring matters or dyes and, if desired, emulsifying agents orsuspending agents, together with diluents such as water, ethanol,propylene glycol, glycerin, or combinations thereof.

Also contemplated within the invention are food compositions, includingmedical food compositions and formulations containing the compositionsof the invention described herein, as well as nutritional or dietarysupplements incorporating the compositions of the invention. Foods, suchas medical foods, incorporating biguanide or related heterocycliccompound compositions include edible forms such as bars, candies,powders, gels, snacks, soups, and liquids. Chewing gums are alsocontemplated within the scope of food compositions. Medical foodbiguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositions can beformulated to control the amounts and types of biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound(s) as well as the content of other edibleadditives and ingredients (e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, fats, fillers,excipients). Exemplary medical food compositions include, but are notlimited to, bars with defined and/or limited biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compounds. Food compositions can be packaged ready-to-serveor ready-to-consume where a set amount of biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound is present at a predefined dosage. Examplesinclude frozen food products, yoghurts, shakes and the like. In anotheraspect, food compositions can be “semi-finished” where an individualassembles various components such as flavorings, sauces, extracts, etc.into a finished consumable product, e.g., soup base, pre-packagednoodles, dessert gelatin. The biguanide or related heterocycliccompounds can be present in one or more components of a semi-finishedfood composition adapted for mixing in biguanide or related heterocycliccompound(s) during food preparation or sprinkling them on the finished,prepared food.

Modified Release Formulations

In various embodiments, the methods and compositions directed to thebiguanide or related heterocyclic compound are provided in the form ofcontrolled, sustained, or extended release formulations, knowncollectively as “modified release” formulations. Compositions can beadministered by modified release means or by delivery devices that arewell known to those of ordinary skill in the art. Examples include, butare not limited to, those described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 3,845,770;3,916,899; 3,536,809; 3,598,123; 4,008,719; 5,674,533; 5,059,595;5,591,767; 5,120,548; 5,073,543; 5,639,476; 5,354,556; and 5,733,566.Such dosage forms can be used to provide modified release of one or moreactive ingredients using, for example, hydropropylmethyl cellulose,other polymer matrices, gels, permeable membranes, osmotic systems,multilayer coatings, microparticles, liposomes, microspheres, or acombination thereof to provide the desired release profile in varyingproportions. Suitable modified release formulations known to those ofordinary skill in the art, including those described herein, can bereadily selected for use with the active ingredients of the invention.The invention thus encompasses single unit dosage forms suitable fororal administration such as, but not limited to, tablets, capsules,gelcaps, and caplets that are adapted for controlled- orsustained-release.

Many strategies can be pursued to obtain modified release in which therate of release outweighs, if any, the rate of metabolism of thecompound and/or the location of the release is controlled. For example,modified release can be obtained by the appropriate selection offormulation parameters and ingredients (e.g., appropriate controlledrelease compositions and coatings). Examples include single or multipleunit tablet or capsule compositions, oil solutions, suspensions,emulsions, microcapsules, microspheres, nanoparticles, patches, andliposomes. The release mechanism can be controlled such that thecompounds are released at period intervals, the release could besimultaneous, a delayed release of one of the agents of the combinationcan be affected, when the early release of one particular agent ispreferred over the other, or the location of the release is controlled.Different delivery systems described herein can also be combined torelease at an onset of multiple period intervals (e.g., about 30minutes, about 120 minutes, about 180 minutes and about 240 minutesafter oral administration) or at different locations (e.g., release inthe lower intestine tract, upper intestine tract, the duodenum, jejunum,ileum, caecum, colon, and/or rectum) or a combination thereof. Forexample, a pH dependent system can be combined with a timed releasesystem or any other system described herein to achieve a desired releaseprofile.

In some embodiments, the modified release systems are formulated torelease a the compound at a duration of about 75 minutes, about 80minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about 110 minutes, about120 minutes, about 130 minutes, about 140 minutes, about 150 minutes,about 160 minutes, about 170 minutes, about 180 minutes, about 190minutes, about 200 minutes, about 210 minutes, about 220 minutes, about230 minutes, about 240 minutes, about 250 minutes, about 260 minutes,about 270 minutes, about 280 minutes, about 290 minutes, about 300minutes, about 310 minutes, about 320 minutes, about 330 minutes, about340 minutes, about 350 minutes, about 360 minutes, about 370 minutes,about 380 minutes, about 390 minutes, about 400, about 400, about 410,or about 420 minutes subsequent to onset of the release. In embodimentswith multiple releases, modified release systems are formulated torelease at more than one durations of time at different time points.

In various embodiments, the compound compositions(s) are provided in theform of modified release formulations coupled with an immediate releasecomponent in a unitary dosage form. The immediate release component canbe formulated by any known method such as a layer that envelops themodified release component or the like. Exemplary ratios of immediaterelease (“IR”) of an active agent to a modified release (“MR”) of anactive agent are about 10% IR to about 90% MR, about 15% IR to about 85%MR, about 20% IR to about 80% MR, about 25% IR to about 75% MR, about30% IR to about 70% MR, about 35% IR to about 65% MR, about 40% IR toabout 60% MR, about 45% IR to about 55% MR, or about 50% IR to about 50%MR. In certain embodiments, the immediate release of an active agent tomodified release of an active agent is about 25% IR to about 75% MR. Incertain embodiments, the immediate release of an active agent tomodified release of an active agent is about 20% IR to about 80% MR.Unitary dosage forms with an IR and MR component include any knownformulation including bilayer tablets, coated pellets, and the like.

Timed Release Systems

In one embodiment, the release mechanism is a “timed” or temporalrelease (“TR”) system that releases an active agent, for example abiguanide or related heterocyclic compound(s), at certain timepointssubsequent to administration. Timed release systems are well known inthe art and suitable timed release system can include any knownexcipient and/or coating. For example, excipients in a matrix, layer orcoating can delay release of an active agent by slowing diffusion of theactive agent into an environment. Suitable timed release excipients,include but are not limited to, acacia (gum arabic), agar, aluminummagnesium silicate, alginates (sodium alginate), sodium stearate,bladderwrack, bentonite, carbomer, carrageenan, Carbopol, cellulose,microcrystalline cellulose, ceratonia, chondrus, dextrose, furcellaran,gelatin, Ghatti gum, guar gum, galactomannan, hectorite, lactose,sucrose, maltodextrin, mannitol, sorbitol, honey, maize starch, wheatstarch, rice starch, potato starch, gelatin, sterculia gum, xanthum gum,Glyceryl behenate (e.g., Compritol 888 ato), Gylceryl distearate (e.g.Precirol ato 5), polyethylene glycol (e.g., PEG 200-4500), polyethyleneoxide, adipic acid, gum tragacanth, ethyl cellulose (e.g., ethylcellulose 100), ethylhydroxyethyl cellulose, ethylmethyl cellulose,methyl cellulose, hydroxyethyl cellulose, hydroxyethylmethyl cellulose(e.g., K100LV, K4M, K15M), hydroxypropyl cellulose, poly(hydroxyethylmethacrylate), cellulose acetate (e.g. cellulose acetate CA-398-10 NF),cellulose acetate phthalate, cellulose acetate propionate, celluloseacetate butyrate, hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose acetate succinate,hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose phthalate, cellulose butyrate, cellulosenitrate, oxypolygelatin, pectin, polygeline, povidone, propylenecarbonate, polyandrides, methyl vinyl ether/maleic anhydride copolymer(PVM/MA), poly(methoxyethyl methacrylate), poly(methoxyethoxyethylmethacrylate), hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropylmethyl cellulose,sodium carboxymethyl-cellulose (CMC), silicon dioxide, vinyl polymers,e.g. polyvinyl pyrrolidones(PVP: povidone), polyvinyl acetates, orpolyvinyl acetate phthalates and mixtures, Kollidon SR, acrylderivatives (e.g. polyacrylates, e.g. cross-linked polyacrylates,methycrylic acid copolymers), Splenda® (dextrose, maltodextrin andsucralose) or combinations thereof. The timed release excipient may bein a matrix with active agent, in another compartment or layer of theformulation, as part of the coating, or any combination thereof. Varyingamounts of one or more timed release excipients may be used to achieve adesignated release time.

In some embodiments, the timed release systems are formulated to releasea biguanide or related heterocyclic compound(s) at an onset of about 75minutes, about 80 minutes, about 90 minutes, about 100 minutes, about110 minutes, about 120 minutes, about 130 minutes, about 140 minutes,about 150 minutes, about 160 minutes, about 170 minutes, about 180minutes, about 190 minutes, about 200 minutes, about 210 minutes, about220 minutes, about 230 minutes, about 240 minutes, about 250 minutes,about 260 minutes, about 270 minutes, about 280 minutes, about 290minutes, about 300 minutes, about 310 minutes, about 320 minutes, about330 minutes, about 340 minutes, about 350 minutes, about 360 minutes,about 370 minutes, about 380 minutes, about 390 minutes, about 400,about 400, about 410, or about 420 minutes subsequent to administration.In embodiments with multiple releases, timed release systems areformulated to release at more than one time point. In certainembodiments, the timed release systems are formulated to release at anonset of about 120 minutes, about 180 minutes and about 240 minutesafter administration. In certain embodiments of the timed releasesystems are formulated to release at an onset of about 5 to about 45minutes, about 105 to about 135 minutes, about 165 to about 195 minutes,about 225 to about 255 minutes or a combination of times thereoffollowing administration to a subject.

In various embodiments, the methods and compositions directed tobiguanide or related heterocyclic compound(s) are provided in the formof timed release formulations coupled with an immediate releasecomponent in a unitary dosage form. The immediate release component canbe a can be formulated by any known method such as a layer that envelopsthe timed release component or the like. The timed release component canbe formulated to release at exemplary times previously described.Exemplary ratios of immediate release (“IR”) of an active agent to atimed release (“TR”) of an active agent are about 10% IR to about 90%TR, about 15% IR to about 85% TR, about 20% IR to about 80% TR, about25% IR to about 75% TR, about 30% IR to about 70% TR, about 35% IR toabout 65% TR, about 40% IR to about 60% TR, about 45% IR to about 55%TR, or about 50% IR to about 50% TR. In certain embodiments, theimmediate release of an active agent to timed release of an active agentis about 25% IR to about 75% TR. In certain embodiments, the immediaterelease of an active agent to timed release of an active agent is about20% IR to about 80% TR.

Enteric Coatings and pH Dependent Systems

The formulation may also be coated with an enteric coating, whichprotects an active agent, for example a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound(s), from degradation in an acidic environment,such as the stomach, and allows a delayed release into a target area,for example the duodenum, for uptake.

The enteric coating may be, as a non-limiting example, wax or wax likesubstance, such as carnauba wax, fatty alcohols, hydrogenated vegetableoils, zein, shellac, sucrose, Arabic gum, gelatin, dextrin, psylliumhusk powder, polymethacrylates, anionic polymethacrylates, mixtures ofpoly(methacrylic acid, methyl methacrylate), polymers or copolymersderived from acrylic and/or methacrylic acid esters, cellulose acetatephthalate, cellulose acetate trimelliate, hydroxypropyl methylcellulosephthalate (HPMCP), cellulose propionate phthalate, cellulose acetatemaleate, polyvinyl alcohol phthalate, hydroxypropyl methylcelluloseacetate succinate (HPMCAS), hydroxypropyl methylcellulosehexahydrophthalate, polyvinyl acetate phthalate, mixtures ofpoly(methacrylic acid, ethyl acrylate), ethylcellulose, methylcellulose,propylcellulose, chitosan succinate, chitosan succinate, polyvinylacetate phthalate (PVAP), polyvinyl acetate polymers carboxymethylethylcellulose and compatible mixtures thereof. In addition, an inactiveintermediate film may be provided between the active agent, for example,a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound(s), and the enteric coatingto prevent interaction of the active agent with the enteric coating.

The enteric coatings can be formulated to release the active agent, forexample, a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound(s), at a desiredpH using combinations of enteric polymers. It is well-known thatdifferent locations of the gastrointestinal system have specific pHs.For example, the duodenum may correspond to a pH 5.5 environment and thejejunum may correspond to pH 6.0 environment. In some embodiments, theenteric coatings are formulated to release a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound(s) at an onset of a pH including about pH 5, aboutpH 5.5, about pH 6, about pH 6.5, or about pH 7. In embodiments withmultiple releases, the enteric coatings are formulated to release at anonset of two or more pH values. In certain embodiments, the entericcoatings are formulated to release at an onset of pH 5.5, 6.0, 6.5 and7.0. In certain embodiments, the enteric coatings are formulated torelease at an onset of pH 5.5, 6.0 and 6.5. In certain embodiments, theenteric coatings are formulated to release at the duodenum, jejunum,ileum, and lower intestine. In yet other embodiments, the entericcoatings are used in combination with other release systems such as atimed release system.

In yet other embodiments, the enteric coatings are used in combinationwith an immediate release/modified release unitary dosage forms. Forexample, an unitary dosage form, such as a bilayer tablet with a 20%IR/80% MR component of biguanide or related heterocyclic compound(s) canbe coated with an enteric coating that releases at pH 6.5 so that therelease is delayed until the dosage form reaches a pH of 6.5, therebyreleasing the IR component immediately and the MR component according toits MR release properties. In certain instances, the enteric coatingsare used in combination with an immediate release/timed release unitarydosage forms.

Microcapsule Gastroretentive Systems

The microcapsules gastroretentive systems described in U.S. Pat. Nos.6,022,562, 5,846,566 and 5,603,957, can be used in the sustained releasedelivery methods described herein. Microparticles of an active agent ordrug are coated by spraying with a material consisting of a mixture of afilm-forming polymer derivative, a hydrophobic plasticizer, a functionalagent and a nitrogen-containing polymer. The resulting microcapsules areless than or equal to 1000 microns (gm) in size, and in certain casessuch microcapsules are between 100 and 500 microns. These microcapsulesremain in the small intestine for at least 5 hours.

Film-forming polymer derivatives used in such microcapsules include, butare not limited to, ethylcellulose, cellulose acetate, andnon-hydrosoluble cellulose derivates. The nitrogen-containing polymersinclude, but are not limited to, polyacrylamide, poly-N-vinylamide,poly-N-vinyl-lactam and polyvinylpyrrolidone. The plasticizer used insuch microcapsule include, but are not limited to, glycerol esters,phthalates, citrates, sebacates, cetylalcohol esters, castor oil andcutin. The surface-active and/or lubricating agent used in suchmicrocapsule include, but are not limited to, anionic surfactants, suchas by way of example the alkali metal or alkaline-earth metal salts offatty acids, stearic acid and/or oleic acid, nonionic surfactants, suchas by way of example, polyoxyethylenated esters of sorbitan and/orpolyoxyethylenated esters of sorbitan and/or polyoxyethylenatedderivatives of castor oil; and/or lubricants such as stearates, such asby way of example, calcium, magnesium, aluminum stearate, zinc stearate,stearylfumarate, sodium stearylfimarate, and glyceryl behenate.

Other Modified Release/Gastroretentive Systems

The following exemplary modified release and gastroretentive systems areuseful for the biguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositions.In one non-limiting example, chitosan and mixtures of chitosan withcarboxymethylcellulose sodium (CMC-Na) have been used as vehicles forthe sustained release of active ingredients, as described by Inouye etal., Drug Design and Delivery 1: 297-305, 1987. Mixtures of thesecompounds and agents of the combinations of the invention, whencompressed under 200 kg/cm2, form a tablet from which the active agentis slowly released upon administration to a patient. The release profilecan be changed by varying the ratios of chitosan, CMC-Na, and activeagent(s). The tablets can also contain other additives, includinglactose, CaHPO4 dihydrate, sucrose, crystalline cellulose, orcroscarmellose sodium.

In another non-limiting example, Baichwal, in U.S. Pat. No. 6,245,356,describes sustained release oral, solid dosage forms that includesagglomerated particles of a therapeutically active medicament inamorphous form, a gelling agent, an ionizable gel strength enhancingagent and an inert diluent. The gelling agent can be a mixture of axanthan gum and a locust bean gum capable of cross-linking with thexanthan gum when the gums are exposed to an environmental fluid.Preferably, the ionizable gel enhancing agent acts to enhance thestrength of cross-linking between the xanthan gum and the locust beangum and thereby prolonging the release of the medicament component ofthe formulation. In addition to xanthan gum and locust bean gum,acceptable gelling agents that may also be used include those gellingagents well known in the art. Examples include naturally occurring ormodified naturally occurring gums such as alginates, carrageenan,pectin, guar gum, modified starch, hydroxypropylmethylcellulose,methylcellulose, and other cellulosic materials or polymers, such as,for example, sodium carboxymethylcellulose and hydroxypropyl cellulose,and mixtures of the foregoing.

In another non-limiting formulation useful for the combinations of theinvention, Baichwal and Staniforth in U.S. Pat. No. 5,135,757 describe afree-flowing slow release granulation for use as a pharmaceuticalexcipient that includes from about 20 to about 70 percent or more byweight of a hydrophilic material that includes a heteropolysaccharide(such as, for example, xanthan gum or a derivative thereof) and apolysaccharide material capable of cross-linking theheteropolysaccharide (such as, for example, galactomannans, and mostpreferably locust bean gum) in the presence of aqueous solutions, andfrom about 30 to about 80 percent by weight of an inertpharmaceutical-filler (such as, for example, lactose, dextrose, sucrose,sorbitol, xylitol, fructose or mixtures thereof). After mixing theexcipient with a tricyclic compound/corticosteroid combination, orcombination agent, of the invention, the mixture is directly compressedinto solid dosage forms such as tablets. The tablets thus formed slowlyrelease the medicament when ingested and exposed to gastric fluids. Byvarying the amount of excipient relative to the medicament, a slowrelease profile can be attained.

In another non-limiting example, Shell, in U.S. Pat. No. 5,007,790,describes sustained-release oral drug-dosage forms that release a activeingredient in solution at a rate controlled by the solubility of theactive ingredient. The dosage form comprises a tablet or capsule thatincludes a plurality of particles of a dispersion of a limitedsolubility active ingredient in a hydrophilic, water-swellable,crosslinked polymer that maintains its physical integrity over thedosing lifetime but thereafter rapidly dissolves. Once ingested, theparticles swell to promote gastric retention and permit the gastricfluid to penetrate the particles, dissolve active ingredient and leachit from the particles, assuring that active ingredient reaches thestomach in the solution state which is less injurious to the stomachthan solid-state active ingredient. The programmed eventual dissolutionof the polymer depends upon the nature of the polymer and the degree ofcrosslinking The polymer is nonfibrillar and substantially water solublein its uncrosslinked state, and the degree of crosslinking is sufficientto enable the polymer to remain insoluble for the desired time period,normally at least from about 4 hours to 8 hours up to 12 hours, with thechoice depending upon the active ingredient incorporated and the medicaltreatment involved. Examples of suitable crosslinked polymers that maybe used in the invention are gelatin, albumin, sodium alginate,carboxymethyl cellulose, polyvinyl alcohol, and chitin. Depending uponthe polymer, crosslinking may be achieved by thermal or radiationtreatment or through the use of crosslinking agents such as aldehydes,polyamino acids, metal ions and the like.

In an additional non-limiting example, Silicone microspheres forpH-controlled gastrointestinal drug delivery have been described byCarelli et al., Int. J. Pharmaceutics 179: 73-83, 1999. The microspheresare pH-sensitive semi-interpenetrating polymer hydrogels made of varyingproportions of poly(methacrylic acid-co-methylmethacrylate) (EudragitL100 or Eudragit S100) and crosslinked polyethylene glycol 8000 that areencapsulated into silicone microspheres. Slow-release formulations caninclude a coating which is not readily water-soluble but which is slowlyattacked and removed by water, or through which water can slowlypermeate. Thus, for example, the combinations of the invention can bespray-coated with a solution of a binder under continuously fluidizingconditions, such as describe by Kitamori et al., U.S. Pat. No.4,036,948. Examples of water-soluble binders include pregelatinizedstarch (e.g., pregelatinized corn starch, pregelatinized white potatostarch), pregelatinized modified starch, water-soluble celluloses (e.g.hydroxypropyl-cellulose, hydroxymethyl-cellulose,hydroxypropylmethyl-cellulose, carboxymethyl-cellulose),polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyvinyl alcohol, dextrin, gum arabicum andgelatin, organic solvent-soluble binders, such as cellulose derivatives(e.g., cellulose acetate phthalate, hydroxypropylmethyl¬cellulosephthalate, ethylcellulose).

Combinations of the invention, or a component thereof, with sustainedrelease properties can also be formulated by spray drying techniques.Yet another form of sustained release combinations can be prepared bymicroencapsulation of combination agent particles in membranes which actas microdialysis cells. In such a formulation, gastric fluid permeatesthe microcapsule walls and swells the microcapsule, allowing the activeagent(s) to dialyze out (see, for example, Tsuei et al., U.S. Pat. No.5,589,194). One commercially available sustained-release system of thiskind consists of microcapsules having membranes of acaciagum/gelatine/ethyl alcohol. This product is available from EurandLimited (France) under the trade name Diffucaps™. Microcapsules soformulated can be carried in a conventional gelatine capsule ortabletted. A bilayer tablet can be formulated for a combination of theinvention in which different custom granulations are made for each agentof the combination and the two agents are compressed on a bi-layer pressto form a single tablet.

When desired, formulations can be prepared with enteric coatings adaptedfor sustained or controlled release administration of the activeingredient. A common type of controlled-release formulation that may beused for the purposes of the present invention comprises an inert core,such as a sugar sphere, coated with an inner activeingredient—containing layer and an outer membrane layer controllingactive ingredient release from the inner layer. Other formulations fortargeted release of compounds in the gastrointestinal tract are alsoknown in the art and contemplated for use with the invention describedherein. Exemplary systems for targeting delivery of a substance to theupper and/or lower gastrointestinal tract include the formulations ofthe TIMERx® system. This controlled release formulation system providesfor altered temporal release (SyncroDose™) as well as biphasic release(Geminex®). (See, for example, Staniforth & Baichwal, TIMERx®: novelpolysaccharide composites for controlled/programmed release of activeingredients in the gastrointestinal tract, Expert Opin. Drug Deliv.,2(3): 587-89 (2005)). Using formulations such as these for the inventiondescribed herein, compositions can be created which target the uppergastrointestinal tract, the lower gastrointestinal tract, or both, inaddition to temporally controlling the release of such compounds in anyof these locations.

One non-limiting example of a lower GI delivery formulation comprises atablet for lower GI delivery. The inner composition of the tabletcomprises about 0.01% weight to about 10.0% by weight of a suitableactive ingredient; about 50% by weight to about 98% by weight of ahydrocolloid gum obtainable from higher plants; and about 2% by weightto about 50% by weight of a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient suchas a binder. Other optional materials may be present that will assist inestablishing the desired characteristics of the pharmaceuticalcomposition. These include materials that may enhance absorption of theactive ingredient in the lower GI, may protect the active ingredientagainst degradation, may prevent dissolution, and the like. Optionallysurrounding the inner composition of the tablet is a coating that ispreferably of enteric polymeric material.

The formulation is designed to take advantage of (1) the protectivecharacteristics of the hydrocolloid obtainable from higher plants in theupper GI and (2) the disintegrative characteristics of the hydrocolloidin the lower GL. Thus, the inner composition of the tablet may be one ofseveral designs: (a) it may be a matrix of a therapeutically effectiveamount of the active ingredient uniformly dispersed throughout incombination with a high percentage of the hydrocolloid and a generallylesser amount of other excipients; (b) it may have a core, in which theactive ingredient is concentrated, surrounded by a layer of materialthat is free of the active ingredient and that has a high percentage ofthe hydrocolloid and a generally lesser amount of other excipients; (c)it may have a concentration gradient of the active ingredient such thatthere is a greater amount in the core of the tablet with lesser amountsin multiple layers surrounding the core and very little or no activeingredient in the outer layer. Whether the design of the tablet is thatof (a), (b) or (c) above, the specificity for regional delivery to thelower GI is enhanced by enterically coating the tablet with anappropriate enteric coating material.

Hydrocolloids are obtainable from higher plants. By “higher plant” ismeant an organism of the vegetable kingdom that lacks the power oflocomotion, has cellulose cell walls, grows by synthesis of inorganicsubstances and includes the vascular plants (or tracheophytes) of thedivision Spermatophyta, particularly those of the class Angiospermae.The gums may be extracted from the roots, legumes, pods, berries, bark,etc. Representative hydrocolloid gums obtainable from higher plantsinclude guar gum, gum tragacanth, karaya gum (also referred to as kadayagum) and locust bean gum (also referred to as carob). Others may bereadily apparent to one of skill in the art. See, for example, “TheChemistry of Plant Gums and Mucilages” by Smith and Montgomery from ACSMonograph Series, No. 141, 1959, Reinhold Publishing Company and the18th edition of the Merck Index. A particularly convenient and usefulhydrocolloid is guar gum which is a neutral polysaccharide and consistsof long galactomannan molecules with some side chain attachments. Thehydrocolloids used in the patient invention generally have highviscosity exhibited upon hydration, are normally linear (at least about50% by weight of the compound is the backbone chain), and will normallyhave high molecular weight, usually about 3×10 5 daltons, more usuallygreater than about 1×10 6 daltons. Generally, the hydrocolloid comes asa powdered hydrocolloid gum and exhibits a viscosity at a 1%concentration in a neutral aqueous solution of at least about 75centipoise per second (cps) at 25° C. after 24 hours, using a Brookfieldviscometer (model LDF) with a number 3 spindle at 90 rpms, preferably atleast 1×10 3 cps and most preferably at least about 2×10 3 cps.Generally, the viscosity increases with increasing molecular weight. SeeMeer Corporation, “An Introduction to Polyhydrocolloids.” Hydrocolloidgums most useful are those where the hydrocolloid is a polysaccharidehydrocolloid which is chemically designated as galactomannan.Galactomannans are polysaccharides consisting of long chains of(1-04)—I3-D-mannopyranosyl units to which single unit side chains ofa-D-galactopyranosyl are joined by (1-06) linkages. Galactomannans arefound in a variety of plants but differ in molecular size and the numberof D-galactosyl side chains. The galactomannans useful in this inventionare commonly found in the endosperms of the leguminosae.

Galactomannan can be obtained, for example, from the cyamopsistetragonolobus, commonly referred to as guar. This exhibits a percentagemannose residue of about 64% with a percent galactose residue of about36%. Commercially available guar gum is about 66-82% galactomannanpolysaccharide with impurities making up the remainder of thecomposition. According to the National Formulary (NF) standards the guargum may contain up to 15% w water, up to 10% w protein, up to 7% w acidinsoluble material and up to about 1.5% ash. Sources of commerciallyavailable guar gum are Aqualon Company, Wilmington, Del.; MeerCorporation, Cincinnati, Ohio; Stein Hall & Company and TIC Gums, Inc.,Belcamp, Md.

Other hydrocolloids are known in the art. See for example “The Chemistryof Plant Gums and Mucilages”⋅by Smith and Montgomery from the A.C.S.Monograph series, #141, 1959, Reinhold Publishing Co. and the EighteenthEdition of The Merck Index. In general, the amount of the hydrocolloidthat will be used is an amount that allows the composition to traversethe upper GI tract without significant disintegration and withoutreleasing significant amounts of active ingredient in the upper GItract, i.e. to provide a delayed-release profile. Generally, that amountof hydrocolloid will be more than about 50% but less than about 98%.Depending on individual variability, whether a patient has eaten or hasfasted, and other factors, a tablet will traverse the stomach and upperintestinal tract in about 3 to 6 hours. During this time, little activeingredient (less than 20%, preferably less than 10%) is released fromthe tablet of this invention. Once the tablet reaches the lower GI, therelease of the active ingredient is triggered by enzymatic degradationof the galactomannan gum.

One non-limiting example of a formulation for upper gastrointestinaldelivery comprises a free-flowing slow release granulation for use as apharmaceutical excipient that includes from about 20 to about 70 percentor more by weight of a hydrophilic material that includes aheteropolysaccharide (such as, for example, xanthan gum or a derivativethereof) and a polysaccharide material capable of cross-linking theheteropolysaccharide (such as, for example, galactomannans, and mostpreferably locust bean gum) in the presence of aqueous solutions, andfrom about 30 to about 80 percent by weight of an inertpharmaceutical-filler (such as, for example, lactose, dextrose, sucrose,sorbitol, xylitol, fructose or mixtures thereof). After mixing theexcipient with the compounds of the invention, the mixture is directlycompressed into solid dosage forms such as tablets. The tablets thusformed slowly release the medicament when ingested and exposed togastric fluids. By varying the amount of excipient relative to themedicament, a slow release profile can be attained.

One non-limiting example of a sustained gastrointestinal deliveryformulation comprises a plurality of particles of a dispersion of alimited solubility active ingredient in a hydrophilic, water-swellable,crosslinked polymer that maintains its physical integrity over thedosing lifetime but thereafter rapidly dissolves. Once ingested, theparticles swell to promote gastric retention and permit the gastricfluid to penetrate the particles, dissolve active ingredient and leachit from the particles, assuring that active ingredient reaches thestomach in the solution state which is less injurious to the stomachthan solid-state active ingredient. The programmed eventual dissolutionof the polymer depends upon the nature of the polymer and the degree ofcrosslinking The polymer is nonfibrillar and substantially water solublein its uncrosslinked state, and the degree of crosslinking is sufficientto enable the polymer to remain insoluble for the desired time period.Examples of suitable crosslinked polymers that may be used in theinvention are gelatin, albumin, sodium alginate, carboxymethylcellulose, polyvinyl alcohol, and chitin. Depending upon the polymer,crosslinking may be achieved by thermal or radiation treatment orthrough the use of crosslinking agents such as aldehydes, polyaminoacids, metal ions and the like.

In another non-limiting example, Villa et al., in U.S. Pat. No.6,773,720, describes a modified-release system containing an innerlipophilic matrix where an active ingredient is inglobated and an outerhydrophilic matrix in which the lipophilic matrix is dispersed. Anactive ingredient, such as a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound,is first inglobated in a low melting lipophlilic excipient or mixture ofexcipients while heating to soften and/or melt the excipient itself,which thereby incorporates the active ingredient by simple dispersion.After cooling at room temperature, an inert matrix forms, which can bereduced in size to obtain matrix granules containing the activeingredient particles. The inert matrix granules are subsequently mixedtogether with one or more hydrophilic water-swellable excipients. Inthis respect, when the composition is contacted with biological fluids,a high viscosity swollen layer is formed, which coordinates the solventmolecules and acts as a barrier to penetration of the aqueous fluiditself inside the new structure. Said barrier antagonizes the staring“burst effect” caused by dissolution of the active ingredient inglobatedinside the inert matrix, which is in its turn inside the hydrophilicmatrix. One commercially available system of this type is from CosmoTechnologies Limited (Italy) under the trade name MMX® technology. Thelipophilic/hydrophilic matrices can be further enterically coated for pHspecific delivery.

Formulations for upper intestinal delivery, lower intestinal delivery orboth are known in the art. Targeting of active ingredients to variousregions of the gut is described, e.g., in The Encyclopedia ofPharmaceutical Technology, by James Swarbrick and James Boylan, InformaHealth Care, 1999, at pp. 287-308. Any suitable fonnulation forgastrointestinal delivery for site-specific delivery and/or specifictemporal delivery (i.e. delayed, controlled, extended, or sustainedrelease) can be used with the invention and is contemplated herein. Inone non-limiting example, a single composition comprises a firstformulation for delivery of at least one the compound to the uppergastrointestinal tract and a second formulation for delivery of at leastone compound to the lower gastrointestinal tract. Thus, a singlecomposition can provide for delivery of one or more biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound(s) to the upper and lower gastrointestinal tract.Additional non-limiting examples include compositions havingformulations for delivery of at least one the compounds to the uppergastrointestinal tract and compositions having formulations for deliveryof at least one the compounds to the lower gastrointestinal tract. Asdescribed herein, different combinations of the compounds can beformulated for treatment of specific conditions and for delivery tospecific locations in the intestinal tract.

Any of the delivery systems described herein may be used in combinationwith others to achieve multiple releases and/or specific releaseprofiles. In some embodiments, the active agent(s) is in a formulationthat achieves multiple releases in the gastrointestinal locationsfollowing administration. In certain embodiments, the active agent(s) isin a multiple release formulation that releases at an onset of about 120minutes, about 180 minutes, about 240 minutes, or combinations thereoffollowing administration. In certain embodiments, the active agent(s) isin a multiple release formulation that releases at an onset of about 75minutes, about 105 to about 135 minutes, about 165 to about 195 minutes,about 225 to about 255 minutes, or combinations thereof followingadministration. In certain embodiments, the active agent(s) is in amultiple release formulation that releases in the duodenum, jejunum,ileum, lower intestine or combinations thereof following administration.In yet other embodiments, the active agent(s) is in a multiple releaseformulation that releases at an onset of about pH 5.5, about pH 6.0, atabout pH 6.5, about pH 7.0, or combinations thereof followingadministration. In yet other embodiments, the active agent(s) is in amultiple release formulation that releases in ranges at about pH 5.0 toabout pH 6.0, about pH 6.0 to about pH 7.0, about pH 7.0 to about pH8.0, or combinations thereof following administration. In yet otherembodiments, the active agent(s) is in a multiple release formulationthat releases a fraction or portion of the active agent(s) as animmediate release with the rest of the active agent(s) released by amodified manner described herein.

Excipients

Any of the compositions or formulations described herein include anycommonly used excipients in pharmaceutics and are selected on the basisof compatibility with the active agent(s) and release profile propertiesof the desired dosage form. Excipients include, but are not limited to,binders, fillers, flow aids/glidents, disintegrants, lubricants,stabilizers, surfactants, and the like. A summary of excipientsdescribed herein, may be found, for example in Remington: The Scienceand Practice of Pharmacy, Nineteeth Ed (Easton, Pa.: Mack PublishingCompany, 1995); Hoover, John E., Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences,(Easton, Pa.: Mack Publishing Co 1975); Liberman, H. A. and Lachman, L.,Eds., Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms (New York, N.Y.: Marcel Decker 1980);and Pharmaceutical Dosage Forms and Drug Delivery Systems, Seventh Ed(Lippincott Williams & Wilkins 1999), herein incorporated by referencein their entirety.

Binders impart cohesive qualities and include, e.g., alginic acid andsalts thereof; cellulose derivatives such as carboxymethylcellulose,methylcellulose (e.g., Methocel®), hydroxypropylmethylcellulose,hydroxyethylcellulose, hydroxypropylcellulose (e.g., Klucel®),ethylcellulose (e.g., Ethocel®), and microcrystalline cellulose (e.g.,Avicel®); microcrystalline dextrose; amylose; magnesium aluminumsilicate; polysaccharide acids; bentonites; gelatin;polyvinylpyrrolidone/vinyl acetate copolymer; crospovidone; povidone;starch; pregelatinized starch; tragacanth, dextrin, a sugar, such assucrose (e.g., Dipac®), glucose, dextrose, molasses, mannitol, sorbitol,xylitol (e.g., Xylitab®), and lactose; a natural or synthetic gum suchas acacia, tragacanth, ghatti gum, mucilage of isapol husks,polyvinylpyrrolidone (e.g., Polyvidone® CL, Kollidon® CL, Polyplasdone®XL-10), larch arabogalactan, Veegum®, polyethylene glycol, waxes, sodiumalginate, and the like.

Disintegrants facilitate breakup or disintegration of oral solid dosageforms after administration. Examples of disintegrants include a starch,e.g., a natural starch such as corn starch or potato starch, apregelatinized starch such as National 1551 or Amijel®, or sodium starchglycolate such as Promogel® or Explotab®; a cellulose such as a woodproduct, methylcrystalline cellulose, e.g., Avicel®, Avicel® PH101,Avicel® PH102, Avicel® PH105, Elcema® P100, Emcocel®, Vivacel®, MingTia®, and Solka-Floc®, methylcellulose, croscarmellose, or across-linked cellulose, such as cross-linked sodiumcarboxymethylcellulose (Ac-Di-Sol®), cross-linkedcarboxymethylcellulose, or cross-linked croscarmellose; a cross-linkedstarch such as sodium starch glycolate; a cross-linked polymer such ascrospovidone; a cross-linked polyvinylpyrrolidone; alginate such asalginic acid or a salt of alginic acid such as sodium alginate; a claysuch as Veegum® HV (magnesium aluminum silicate); a gum such as agar,guar, locust bean, Karaya, pectin, or tragacanth; sodium starchglycolate; bentonite; a natural sponge; a resin such as acation-exchange resin; citrus pulp; sodium lauryl sulfate; sodium laurylsulfate in combination starch; and the like.

Lubricants are compounds which prevent, reduce or inhibit adhesion orfriction of materials. Exemplary lubricants include, e.g., stearic acid;calcium hydroxide; talc; sodium stearyl fumerate; a hydrocarbon such asmineral oil, hydrogenated castor oil or hydrogenated vegetable oil suchas hydrogenated soybean oil (Sterotex®); higher fatty acids and theiralkali-metal and alkaline earth metal salts, such as aluminum, calcium,magnesium, zinc; stearic acid, sodium stearates, magnesium stearates,glycerol, talc, waxes, Stearowet® boric acid, sodium benzoate, sodiumacetate, sodium chloride, leucine, a polyethylene glycol or amethoxypolyethylene glycol such as Carbowax™, ethylene oxide polymers,sodium oleate, glyceryl behenate (E.g. Compritol 888 Ato), glyceryldisterate (Precirol Ato 5), polyethylene glycol, magnesium or sodiumlauryl sulfate, colloidal silica such as Syloid™, Carb-O-Sil®,DL-leucine, a starch such as corn starch, silicone oil, a surfactant,and the like.

Flow-aids or glidants improve the flow characteristics of powdermixtures. Such compounds include, e.g., colloidal silicon dioxide suchas Cab-o-Sil®; tribasic calcium phosphate, talc, corn starch,DL-leucine, sodium lauryl sulfate, magnesium stearate, calcium stearate,sodium stearate, kaolin, and micronized amorphous silicon dioxide(Syloid®) and the like.

Plasticizers aid in coating of oral solid dosage forms. Exemplaryplasticizers include, but are not limited to, triethyl citrate,triacetin (glyceryl triacetate), acetyl triethyl citrate, polyethyleneglycols (PEG 4000, PEG 6000, PEG 8000), Carbowax 400 (polyethyleneglycol 400), diethyl phthalate, diethyl sebacate, acetyltriethylcitrate,oleic acid, glyceralmonosterate, tributyl citrate, acetylatedmonoglycerides, glycerol, fatty acid esters, propylene glycol, anddibutyl phthalate and the like.

The aforementioned excipients are given as examples only and are notmeant to include all possible choices. Other suitable excipient classesinclude coloring agents, granulating agents, preservatives, anti-foamingagents, solubulizers and the like. Additionally, many excipients canhave more than one role or function, or can be classified in more thanone group; the classifications are descriptive only, and are notintended to limit any use of a particular excipient.

Methods for Evaluating Treatment

Hormonal Profiles

Administration of biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcomposition(s) provided herein modulates hormone concentrations and/orconcentrations of hormones including, but not limited to, GLP-1, GLP-2,GIP, oxyntomodulin, PYY, CCK, glycentin, insulin, glucagon, ghrelin,amylin, C-peptide and uroguanylin. Sampling of hormones can be performedfrequently during the administration of compounds. Test animals andsubjects can be studied with and without systemic inhibition ofdipeptidyl-peptidase IV (DPP-IV) to augment the circulating half-life ofthe relevant hormones that can be degraded by DPP-IV.

By way of example, certain embodiments of the methods described hereinprovide for glucose lowering, wherein hormonal profiles suited fortreating elevated blood glucose are composed of, but not limited to: 1)GLP-1 with circulating concentrations over 1.5-fold basalconcentrations; 2) GIP with circulating concentrations over 1.5-foldbasal concentrations and 3) PYY 3-36 circulating concentrations over1.5-fold basal concentrations.

In another example, certain embodiments of the methods described hereinprovide for weight loss, wherein hormonal profiles suited for weightloss are composed of, but not limited to: 1) PYY with circulatingconcentrations over 3-fold basal concentrations; 2) Oxyntomodulin withcirculating concentrations over 2-fold basal concentrations; 3) GPL-1with circulating concentrations over 3-fold basal concentrations; and 4)CCK with circulating concentrations over 2-fold basal concentrations.

In another example, certain embodiments of the methods described,hormonal profiles include: 1) PYY (total) with circulatingconcentrations over 3-fold basal concentrations; and 2) GLP-1 (active)with circulating concentrations over 3-fold basal concentrations.

In certain embodiments described herein, methods are provided formodulating hormone concentrations in a subject comprising theadministration of a composition comprising a biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound, said composition being adapted to deliver saidcompound to one or more regions of the intestine of said subject. Insome embodiments, administration of biguanide or related heterocycliccompound composition(s) as provided herein modulates circulating hormoneconcentrations of at least one, at least two, at least three, at leastfour, at least five, at least six, at least seven, at least eight, atleast nine, at least ten, at least eleven, at least twelve, or at leastthirteen hormones. In certain embodiments, administration of biguanideor related heterocyclic compound composition(s) as provided hereinincreases circulating hormone concentrations of at least one, at leasttwo, at least three, at least four, at least five, at least six, atleast seven, at least eight, at least nine, at least ten, at leasteleven, at least twelve, or at least thirteen hormones. In certainembodiments, administration of biguanide or related heterocycliccompound composition(s) as provided herein decreases circulating hormoneconcentrations of at least one, at least two, at least three, at leastfour, at least five, at least six, at least at least seven hormones. Insome embodiments, administration of biguanide or related heterocycliccompound compositions modulates GLP-1. In some embodiments,administration of biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcompositions modulates GLP-2. In some embodiments, administration ofbiguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositions modulates GIP.In some embodiments, administration of biguanide or related heterocycliccompound compositions modulates oxyntomodulin. In some embodiments,administration of biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcompositions modulates PYY. In some embodiments, administration ofbiguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositions modulates CCK.In some embodiments, administration of biguanide or related heterocycliccompound compositions modulates glycentin. In some embodiments,administration of biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcompositions modulates insulin. In some embodiments, administration ofbiguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositions modulatesglucagon. In some embodiments, administration of biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound compositions modulates, ghrelin. In someembodiments, administration of biguanide or related heterocycliccompound compositions modulates amylin. In some embodiments,administration of biguanide or related heterocyclic compoundcompositions modulates insulin. In some embodiments, administration ofbiguanide or related heterocyclic compound compositions modulatesC-peptide. In some embodiments, administration of biguanide or relatedheterocyclic compound compositions modulates uroguanylin.

Hormone Assays

In embodiments, the levels of hormones assayed in association with themethods of the invention, including, but not limited to, GLP-1, GLP-2,GIP, oxyntomodulin, PYY, CCK, glycentin, insulin, glucagon, ghrelin,amylin, uroguanylin, C-peptide and/or combinations thereof are detectedaccording to standard methods described in the literature. For example,proteins can be measured by immunological assays, and transcriptionproducts by nucleic acid amplification techniques. Functional assaysdescribed in the art can also be used as appropriate. In embodiments,samples assayed comprise cultured cells, patient cell or tissue samples,patient body fluids, e.g., blood or plasma, etc. Similarly, the levelsof analytes (e.g., glucose, triglycerides, HDL, LDL, apoB and the like)assayed in association with the methods of the invention are detectedaccording to any known method.

For example, immunofluorescence can be used to assay for GLP-1. Cellscan be grown on matrigel-coated cover slips to confluent monolayers in12-well plates at 37° C., fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde inphosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and incubated with primary antiserum(e.g., rabbit anti-alpha gustducin, 1:150; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, andrabbit anti-GLP-1, Phoenix) overnight at 4° C. followingpermeabilization with 0.4% Triton-X in PBS for 10 minutes and blockingfor 1 hour at room temperature. Following three washing steps withblocking buffer, the appropriate secondary antibody is applied(AlexaFluor 488 anti-rabbit immunoglobulin, 1:1000; Molecular Probes)for 1 hour at room temperature. After three washing steps, the cells canbe fixed in Vectashield medium and the immunofluorescence visualized.

GLP-1 RNA isolated from cells can be assayed using RT-PCR. RT-PCR RNAisolation from cells can be performed using standard methodology. TheRT-PCR reaction can be performed in a volume of 50 μl in a Peltierthermal cycler (PTC-225 DNA Engine Tetrad Cycler; MJ Research), usingpublished primer sequences (Integrated DNA Technologies). Reversetranscription can be performed at 50° C. for 30 minutes; after aninitial activation step at 95° C. for 15 minutes. PCR can be performedby denaturing at 94° C. for 1 minute, annealing at 55° C. for 1 minuteand extension at 72° C. for 1 minute for 40 cycles, followed by a finalextension step at 72° C. for 10 minutes. Negative controls can beincluded as appropriate, for example, by substituting water for theomitted reverse transcriptase or template. The control can be RNAisolated from, e.g., rat lingual epithelium. PCR products can beseparated in 2% agarose gel with ethidium bromide, and visualized underUV light.

Radioimmunoassay (RIA) for total GLP-1 in patient blood samples can beperformed as described in the art, e.g., by Laferrere, et al., 2007,“Incretin Levels and Effect are Markedly Enhanced 1 Month afterRoux-en-Y Gastric Bypass Surgery in Obese Patients with Type 2 Diabetes,Diabetes Care 30(7):1709-1716 (using commercially available materialsobtained from Phoenix Pharmaceutical, Belmont, Calif.). The authorsdescribe measuring the effect of GIP and GLP-1 on secretion of insulinby measuring the difference in insulin secretion (area under the curve,or AUC) in response to an oral glucose tolerance test and to anisoglycemic intravenous glucose test.

Measurement of plasma concentrations of GLP-1, GIP, glucagon, insulin, Cpeptide, pancreatic peptide, nonesterified fatty acids, glutamic aciddecarboxylase antibodies, and islet antigen antibodies, is described,e.g., by Toft-Nielsen, et al., 2001, “Determinants of the ImpairedSecretion of Glucagon-Like Peptide-1 in Type 2 Diabetic Patients,” J.Clin. End. Met. 86(8):3717-3723. The authors describe the use ofradioimmunoassay for GLP-1 to measure plasma concentrations of amidatedGLP-1-(7-36), using antibody code no. 89390. This assay measures the sumof GLP-1-(7-36) and its metabolite GLP-1-(9-36). The authors describemeasurement of GIP using C-terminally directed antibody code no. R65(RIA), that reacts 100% with a human GIP but not with 8-kDA GIP.

GLP-1 and PYY can be directly assayed in the supernatant from venouseffluents as described by, e.g., Claustre, et al. (1999, “Stimulatoryeffect of β-adrenergic agonists on ileal L cell secretion and modulationby α-adrenergic activation, J. Endocrin. 162:271-8). (See alsoPlaisancie' et al., 1994, “Regulation of glucagon-like peptide-1-(7-36)amide secretion by intestinal neurotransmitters and hormones in theisolated vascularly perfused rat colon,” Endocrinology 135:2398-2403 andPlaisancie' et al., 1995, “Release of peptide YY by neurotransmittersand gut hormones in the isolated, vascularly perfused rat colon,”Scandinavian Journal of Gastroenterology 30:568-574.) In this method,the 199D anti-GLP-1 antibody is used at a 1:250 000 dilution. Thisantibody reacts 100% with GLP-1-(7-36) amide, 84% with GLP-1-(1-36)amide, and less than 0.1% with GLP-1-(1-37), GLP-1-(7-37), GLP-2, andglucagon. PYY is assayed with the A4D anti-porcine PYY antiserum at a1:800 000 dilution.

Methods for assaying GLP-1 and GIP are also described elsewhere in theart, e.g., by Jang, et al., PNAS, 2007.

PYY can also be assayed in blood using a radioimmunoassay as describedby, e.g., Weickert, et al., 2006, “Soy isoflavones increase preprandialpeptide YY (PYY), but have no effect on ghrelin and body weight inhealthy postmenopausal women” Journal ofNegative Results in BioMedicine,5:11. Blood is collected in ice-chilled EDTA tubes for the analysis ofglucose, ghrelin, and PYY. Following centrifugation at 1600 g for 10minutes at 4° C., aliquots were immediately frozen at −20° C. untilassayed. All samples from individual subjects were measured in the sameassay. The authors described measuring immunoreactive total ghrelin wasmeasured by a commercially available radioimmunoassay (PhoenixPharmaceuticals, Mountain View, Calif., USA). (See also Weickert, etal., 2006, “Cereal fiber improves whole-body insulin sensitivity inoverweight and obese women,” Diabetes Care 29:775-780). Immunoreactivetotal human PYY is measured by a commercially available radioimmunoassay(LINCO Research, Missouri, USA), using 1251-labeled bioactive PYY astracer and a PYY antiserum to determine the level of active PYY by thedouble antibody/PEG technique. The PYY antibody is raised in guinea pigsand recognizes both the PYY 1-36 and PYY 3-36 (active) forms of humanPYY.

SGLT-1, the intestinal sodium-dependent glucose transporter 1, is aprotein involved in providing glucose to the body. It has been reportedto be expressed in response to sugar in the lumen of the gut, through apathway involving T1R3 (Margolskee, et al., 2007 “T1R3 and gustducin ingut sense sugars to regulate expression of Na+-glucose cotransporter 1,”Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 104, 15075-15080”). Expression of SGLT-1 can bedetected as described, e.g., by Margolskee, et al., for example, usingquantitative PCR and Western Blotting methods known in the art.Measurement of glucose transport has been described in the literature,e.g., by Dyer, et al., 1997, Gut 41:56-9 and Dyer, et al., 2003, Eur. J.Biochem 270:3377-88. Measurement of glucose transport in brush bordermembrane vesicles can be made, e.g., by initiating D-glucose uptake bythe addition of 100 μl of incubation medium containing 100 mM NaSCN (orKSCN), 100 mM mannitol, 20 mM Hepes/Tris (pH 7.4), 0.1 mM MgSO4, 0.02%(wt/vol) NaN3, and 0.1 mM D-[U14C]glucose to BBMV (100 μg of protein).The reaction is stopped after 3 sec by addition of 1 ml of ice-cold stopbuffer, containing 150 mM KSCN, 20 mM Hepes/Tris (pH 7.4), 0.1 mM MgSO4,0.02% (wt/vol) NaN3, and 0.1 mM phlorizin. A 0.9-ml portion of thereaction mixture is removed and filtered under vacuum through a 0.22-μmpore cellulose acetate/nitrate filter (GSTF02500; Millipore, Bedford,Mass.). The filter is washed five times with 1 ml of stop buffer, andthe radioactivity retained on the filter is measured by liquidscintillation counting.

Evaluation of Treatment of Diabetes

The effect of a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound treatment ofthe invention on aspects of diabetic disease can be evaluated accordingto methods known in the art and common practiced by physicians treatingdiabetic subjects.

Efficacy of treatment of diabetes/metabolic syndrome anddiabetes-associated conditions with the compositions and methodsdescribed herein can be assessed using assays and methodologies known inthe art. By way of example, quantitative assessment of renal functionand parameters of renal dysfunction are well known in the art. Examplesof assays for the determination of renal function/dysfunction includeserum creatinine level; creatinine clearance rate; cystatin C clearancerate, 24-hour urinary creatinine clearance, 24-hour urinary proteinsecretion; Glomerular filtration rate (GFR); urinary albumin creatinineratio (ACR); albumin excretion rate (AER); and renal biopsy.

Quantitative assessment of pancreatic function and parameters ofpancreatic dysfunction or insufficiency are also well known in the art.Examples of assays for the determination of pancreasfunction/dysfunction include evaluating pancreatic functions usingbiological and/or physiological parameters such as assessment of isletsof Langerhans size, growth and/or secreting activity, beta-cells size,growth and/or secreting activity, insulin secretion and circulatingblood levels, glucose blood levels, imaging of the pancreas, andpancreas biopsy, glucose uptake studies by oral glucose challenge,assessment of cytokine profiles, blood-gas analysis, extent ofblood-perfusion of tissues, and angiogenesis within tissues.

Additional assays for treatment of diabetes and diabetes-associatedconditions are known in the art and are contemplated herein.

Evaluation of Treatment of Obesity and Eating Disorders

In treatment of obesity it is desired that weight and/or fat is reducedin a subject. By reducing weight it is meant that the subject loses aportion of his/her total body weight over the course of treatment(whether the course of treatment be days, weeks, months or years).Alternatively, reducing weight can be defined as a decrease inproportion of fat mass to lean mass (in other words, the subject haslost fat mass, but maintained or gained lean mass, without necessarily acorresponding loss in total body weight). An effective amount of abiguanide or related heterocyclic compound treatment administered inthis embodiment is an amount effective to reduce a subject's body weightover the course of the treatment, or alternatively an amount effectiveto reduce the subject's percentage of fat mass over the course of thetreatment. In certain embodiments, the subject's body weight is reduced,over the course of treatment, by at least about 1%, by at least about5%, by at least about 10%, by at least about 15%, or by at least about20%. Alternatively, the subject's percentage of fat mass is reduced,over the course of treatment, by at least 1%, at least 5%, at least 10%,at least 15%, at least 20%, or at least 25%.

Total body weight and fat content can be measured at the end of thedietary period. In rats, a frequently used method to determine totalbody fat is to surgically remove and weigh the retroperitoneal fat pad,a body of fat located in the retroperitoneum, the area between theposterior abdominal wall and the posterior parietal peritoneum. The padweight is considered to be directly related to percent body fat of theanimal. Since the relationship between body weight and body fat in ratsis linear, obese animals have a correspondingly higher percent of bodyfat and retroperitoneal fat pad weight.

In embodiments wherein methods of treating, reducing, or preventing foodcravings in a subject are provided, food cravings can be measured byusing a questionnaire, whether known in the art or created by the personstudying the food cravings. Such a questionnaire would preferably rankthe level of food cravings on a numerical scale, with the subjectmarking 0 if they have no food cravings, and marking (if on a scale of1-10) 10 if the subject has severe food cravings. The questionnairewould preferably also include questions as to what types of food thesubject is craving.

Binge eating can be determined or measured using a questionnaire and aBinge Eating Scale (BES). Binge eating severity can be divided intothree categories (mild, moderate, and severe) based on the total BESscore (calculated by summing the scores for each individual item).Accordingly, methods are provided for reducing the BES score of asubject comprising administering to a subject in need thereof abiguanide or related heterocyclic compound treatment in an amounteffective to reduce the BES score of the subject. In some embodiments,administration of a biguanide or related heterocyclic compound treatmentchanges the BES category of the subject, for example, from severe tomoderate, from severe to mild, or from moderate to mild.

Pre-Treatment Evaluation of Patient Hormonal Profile

In some embodiments, patients are pre-evaluated for expression ofmetabolic hormones using methods described herein. The therapy providedto the individual can thus be targeted to his or her specific needs. Inembodiments, a patient's hormonal profile is pre-evaluated and dependingon the changes that the physician desires to affect, a certain biguanideor related heterocyclic compound/metabolite combination is administered.The evaluation process can be repeated and the treatment adjustedaccordingly at any time during or following treatment.

Definitions

“Chemosensory receptor” as used herein includes, e.g., the G-proteincoupled receptors (GPCRs) that are expressed in the gastrointestinaltract of a subject. Chemosensory receptors include the taste receptorfamily and are further categorized according to their tastecharacteristics. They include sweet receptors, umami receptors (alsoknown as savory receptors), bitter receptors, fat receptors, bile acidreceptors, salty receptors, and sour receptors. A chemosensory receptorcan be any receptor associated with chemosensory sensation orchemosensory ligand triggered signal transduction, e.g., via tastereceptors or taste related receptors present in taste bud,gastrointestinal tract, etc.

“Activity,” or “functional effects” in the context of the disclosedligands and assays for testing compounds that modulate a chemosensoryreceptor, e.g., enhance a chemosensory receptor family member mediatedsignal transduction such as sweet, umami, bitter, fat, bile acid, souror salty receptor functional effects or activity, includes thedetermination of any parameter that is indirectly or directly under theinfluence of the particular chemosensory receptor. It includes, withoutany limitation, ligand binding, changes in ion flux, membrane potential,current flow, transcription, G protein binding, GPCR phosphorylation ordephosphorylation, signal transduction, receptor-ligand interactions,second messenger concentrations (e.g., cAMP, cGMP, IP3, or intracellularCa2+), in vitro, in vivo, and ex vivo and also includes otherphysiologic effects such as increases or decreases of neurotransmitteror hormone release and the measurement of the downstream physiologicaleffects of such release.

The term “determining the functional effect” or receptor “activity”means assays for a compound that increases or decreases a parameter thatis indirectly or directly under the influence of a chemosensoryreceptor, e.g., functional, physical and chemical effects. Suchparameters also include secretion of hormones such as GIP, GLP-1, GLP-2,oxyntomodulin, insulin, glucagon, insulin peptide C, peptide YY, andCCK. Such functional effects can be measured by any means known to thoseskilled in the art, e.g., changes in spectroscopic characteristics(e.g., fluorescence, absorbance, refractive index), hydrodynamic (e.g.,shape), chromatographic, or solubility properties, patch clamping,voltage-sensitive dyes, whole cell currents, radioisotope efflux,inducible markers, oocyte chemosensory receptor, e.g., T1R geneexpression; tissue culture cell chemosensory receptor, e.g., T1Rexpression; transcriptional activation of chemosensory receptor, e.g.,T1R genes; ligand binding assays; voltage, membrane potential andconductance changes; ion flux assays; changes in intracellular secondmessengers such as cAMP, cGMP, and inositol triphosphate (IP3); changesin intracellular calcium levels; neurotransmitter release, and the like.Also included are assays to determine increases or decreases in hormoneor neurotransmitter secretion and/or activity. Changes in hormone orneurotransmitter secretion and/or activity can also be determinedindirectly by the physiological effects caused by changes in thesecretion of hormone or neurotransmitter. Functional and physicalparameters that can be used to determine the functional effect orreceptor activity include, but is not limited to, appetite suppressionand weight loss.

Chemosensory receptor ligands include metabolized chemosensory receptorligands that can be metabolized as an energy source, e.g. food ormetabolites, as well as nonmetabolized chemosensory receptor ligandsthat are not metabolized as an energy source, e.g. tastants. The termnonmetabolized chemosensory receptor ligands, as used herein, includeschemosensory receptor ligands that are metabolized to a small degree butare not metabolized substantially. That is, nonmetabolized chemosensoryreceptor ligand includes ligands that have insignificant caloric value.Chemosensory receptor ligands include agonists, antagonists, modifiers,and enhancers as well as other compounds that modulate chemosensoryreceptors. Many chemosensory receptor ligands are known in the art andhave been reported in the literature.

“Tastants” as used herein refers to any ligand that induces a flavor ortaste in a subject, including sweet, sour, salty, bitter, umami andothers. Tastants are also generally nonmetabolized in the sense thatthey have no significant caloric value.

“Metabolites” as used herein are metabolized chemosensory receptorligands such as, for example, glucose, glutamate salts, fatty acids andbile acids. In certain aspects, metabolites can be derived from a foodsource. Metabolites can be administered as part of a chemosensoryreceptor ligand composition or separately.

Antagonists/inhibitors are compounds that, e.g., bind to, partially ortotally block stimulation, decrease, prevent, delay activation,inactivate, desensitize, or down-regulate chemosensory receptor and/ortaste transduction. Agonists/activators are compounds that, e.g., bindto, stimulate, increase, open, activate, facilitate, enhance activation,sensitize, or up regulate chemosensory receptor signal transduction.

Modifiers include compounds that, e.g., alter, directly or indirectly,the activity of a receptor or the interaction of a receptor with itsligands, e.g., receptor ligands, biguanide or related heterocycliccompounds, and optionally bind to or interact with activators orinhibitors; G Proteins; kinases (e.g., homologs of rhodopsin kinase andbeta adrenergic receptor kinases that are involved in deactivation anddesensitization of a receptor); and arresting, which also deactivate anddesensitize receptors. Modifiers include genetically modified versionsof chemosensory receptors, e.g., TIR family members, e.g., with alteredactivity, as well as naturally occurring and synthetic ligands,antagonists, agonists, small chemical molecules and the like. In thepresent invention this includes, without any limitation, sweet receptorligands, umami receptor ligands, bitter receptor ligands, fatty acidligands, bile receptor ligands, (agonists or antagonists). Modifiersalso include compounds that allosterically bind to a receptor and changereceptor activity. Modifiers also include enhancers. Depending on thestructure, functional and activity properties, modifiers can enhance,potentiate, induce and/or block the physiological activity otherchemosensory receptor ligands.

Enhancers as used herein are a type of modifier and refer tochemosensory receptor ligands that enhance, potentiate or multiply theeffect of another chemosensory receptor ligand. For example, a sweetreceptor enhancer can increase or multiply the sweetness of achemosensory receptor ligand composition, when used in combination witha sweet receptor ligand (e.g., a sweetener, such as sucrose, fructose,glucose, saccharine, aspartame, sucralose, etc.). While a sweet receptorenhancer may or may not have sweet properties at some combinations whenused in the absence of a sweet receptor ligand, sweet receptorenhancement occurs when the sweet receptor enhancer is used incombination with another sweet receptor ligand with the result that theresulting sweetness perceived in a subject is greater than the additiveeffects attributable to the sweet receptor enhancer's own sweetproperties (if any), plus the sweetness attributable to the presence ofthe sweet receptor ligand.

The terms “gastrointestinal tract” and “gut,” as used herein, refer tothe stomach and intestines. The “small” or “upper” intestine includesthe duodenum, jejunum and ileum and the “large” or “lower” intestineincludes the caecum, colon and rectum. “Beyond the stomach” refers tothe small and lower intestines.

“Treating” or “treatment” of any condition, disease or disorder refers,in some embodiments, to ameliorating the disease, disorder, or condition(i.e., arresting or reducing the development of the disease, disorder,or condition, or at least one of the clinical symptoms thereof). Inother embodiments “treating” or “treatment” refers to ameliorating atleast one physical parameter, which may or may not be discernible by thesubject, including physical parameters that are undesired but notclinically significant. In yet other embodiments, “treating” or“treatment” refers to inhibiting the disease, disorder, or condition,either physically, (e.g., stabilization of a discernible symptom),physiologically, (e.g., stabilization of a physical parameter) or both.In yet other embodiments, “treating” or “treatment” refers to preventingor to delaying the onset of the disease, disorder, or condition.

“Therapeutically effective amount” or “effective amount” means theamount of a composition, compound, therapy, or course of treatment that,when administered to a subject for treating a disease, disorder, orcondition, is sufficient to effect such treatment for the disease,disorder, or condition. The “therapeutically effective amount” will varydepending on the composition, the compound, the therapy, the course oftreatment, the disease, disorder, or condition, and its severity and theage, weight, etc., of the subject to be treated.

When the compounds (e.g., compounds of formulae I-IV as well as othercompounds having a described chemical structure) described hereininclude one or more chiral centers, the stereochemistry of such chiralcenters can independently be in the R or S configuration, or a mixtureof the two. The chiral centers can be further designated as R or S orR,S or d,D, l,L or d,l, D,L. Correspondingly, the amide, guanidine,biguanide and related heterocyclic compounds of the invention, if theycan be present in optically active form, can actually be present in theform of a racemic mixture of enantiomers, or in the form of either ofthe separate enantiomers in substantially isolated and purified form, oras a mixture comprising any relative proportions of the enantiomers.

When the amide, guanidine, biguanide and related heterocyclic compoundsof the invention, if they can be present in geometrically isomeric formsaround, for example, the guanide bond, then they can actually be presentin the form of a mixture of geometric isomers comprising any relativeproportions of the isomers, or in some cases in the form of either ofthe separate geometric isomers in substantially isolated and purifiedform.

When the compounds (e.g., compounds of formulae I-IV as well as othercompounds having a described chemical structure) described hereininclude one or more isolated or linearly conjugated double bonds, thegeometry around such double bonds can be independently a cis/trans, E/Zmixture or an E or Z geometric isomer thereof.

“Alkyl” means a straight or branched chain, saturated monovalenthydrocarbon radical. By way of example, the hydrocarbon chain may havefrom one to twenty carbons, one to sixteen carbons, one to fourteencarbons, one to twelve carbons, one to ten carbons, one to eightcarbons, one to six carbons, one to four carbons, etc. “Lower alkyl” mayrefer to alkyls having, e.g., one to six carbons, one to four carbons,etc. In certain examples, an straight chain alkyl may have from one tosix carbon atoms and a branched alkyl three to six carbon atoms, e.g.,methyl, ethyl, propyl, 2-propyl, butyl (including all isomeric forms),pentyl (including all isomeric forms), and the like. “Me” means methyl,“Et” means ethyl, and “iPr” means isopropyl.

“Aryl” means a monovalent monocyclic or bicyclic aromatic hydrocarbonradical, e.g., having from of 6 to 20 or 6 to 10 ring atoms e.g., phenylor naphthyl.

“Alkylaryl” means a -(alkylene)-R radical where R is aryl as definedabove.

“Cycloalkyl” means a cyclic saturated or partially saturated monovalenthydrocarbon radical (or an alicyclic radical). By way of example, thecycloalkyl may have from three to twenty carbon atoms, from three tosixteen carbon atoms, from three to fourteen carbon atoms, from three totwelve carbon atoms, from three to ten carbon atoms, from three to eightcarbon atoms, from three to six carbon atoms, etc., wherein one or twocarbon atoms may be replaced by an oxo group, e.g., admantanyl,cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, cyclohexenyl, indanyland the like.

“Alkylcycloalkyl” means a -(alkylene)-R radical where R is cycloalkyl asdefined above; e.g., cyclopropylmethyl, cyclobutylmethyl,cyclopentylethyl, or cyclohexylmethyl, and the like.

“Heterocyclyl” or “heterocycloalkyl” means a saturated or unsaturatedmonovalent monocyclic group, in which one or two ring atoms areheteroatom selected from N, O, or S, the remaining ring atoms being C.The heterocyclyl ring is optionally fused to a (one) aryl or heteroarylring as defined herein. The heterocyclyl ring fused to monocyclic arylor heteroaryl ring is also referred to in this Application as “bicyclicheterocyclyl” ring. Additionally, one or two ring carbon atoms in theheterocyclyl ring can optionally be replaced by a —CO— group. Morespecifically the term heterocyclyl includes, but is not limited to,pyrrolidino, piperidino, homopiperidino, 2-oxopyrrolidinyl,2-oxopiperidinyl, morpholino, piperazino, tetrahydropyranyl,thiomorpholino, and the like. When the heterocyclyl ring is unsaturatedit can contain one or two ring double bonds. When the heterocyclyl groupcontains at least one nitrogen atom, it is also referred to herein asheterocycloamino and is a subset of the heterocyclyl group. When theheterocyclyl group is a saturated ring and is not fused to aryl orheteroaryl ring as stated above, it is also referred to herein assaturated monocyclic heterocyclyl.

“Alkylheterocycloalkyl” means a -(alkylene)-R radical where R isheterocyclyl ring as defined above e.g., tetraydrofuranylmethyl,piperazinylmethyl, morpholinylethyl, and the like.

“Heteroaryl” means a monovalent monocyclic or bicyclic aromatic radical,where one or more, preferably one, two, or three, ring atoms areheteroatom selected from N, O, or S, the remaining ring atoms beingcarbon. Representative examples include, but are not limited to,pyrrolyl, thienyl, thiazolyl, imidazolyl, furanyl, indolyl, isoindolyl,oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, diazolyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl, benzothiazolyl,benzoxazolyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, pyridinyl, pyrimidinyl,pyrazinyl, pyridazinyl, tetrazolyl, and the like.

“Oxo” or “carbonyl” means=(O) group or C═O group, respectively.

The term “substituted” means that the referenced group is substitutedwith one or more additional group(s) individually and independentlyselected from groups described herein. In some embodiments, an optionalsubstituent is selected from oxo, halogen, —CN, —NH2, —OH, —NH(CH3),—N(CH3)2, alkyl (including straight chain, branched and/or unsaturatedalkyl), substituted or unsubstituted cycloalkyl, substituted orunsubstituted heterocycloalkyl, fluoroalkyl, substituted orunsubstituted heteroalkyl, substituted or unsubstituted alkoxy,fluoroalkoxy, —S-alkyl, —S(O)2-alkyl, —CONH((substituted orunsubstituted alkyl) or (substituted or unsubstituted phenyl)), —CON(Hor alkyl)2, —OCON(substituted or unsubstituted alkyl)2,—NHCONH((substituted or unsubstituted alkyl) or (substituted orunsubstituted phenyl)), —NHCOalkyl, —N(substituted or unsubstitutedalkyl)CO(substituted or unsubstituted alkyl), —NHCOO(substituted orunsubstituted alkyl), —C(OH)(substituted or unsubstituted alkyl)2, and—C(NH2)(substituted or unsubstituted alkyl)2. In some embodiments, byway of example, an optional substituent is selected from oxo, fluorine,chlorine, bromine, iodine, —CN, —NH2, —OH, —NH(CH3), —N(CH3)2, —CH3,—CH2CH3, —CH(CH3)2, —CF3, —CH2CF3, —OCH3, —OCH2CH3, —OCH(CH3)2, —OCF3,—OCH2CF3, —S(O)2-CH3, —CONH2, —CONHCH3, —NHCONHCH3, —COCH3, —COOH andthe like. In some embodiments, substituted groups are substituted withone, two or three of the preceding groups. In some embodiments,substituted groups are substituted with one or two of the precedinggroups. In some embodiments, substituted groups are substituted with oneof the preceding groups. Further, unless stated to the contrary, aformula with chemical bonds shown only as solid lines and not as wedgesor dashed lines contemplates each possible isomer, e.g., each enantiomerand diastereomer, and a mixture of isomers, such as racemic or scalemicmixtures.

In some embodiments, a compound of the disclosure (e.g., compounds ofFormulae I-IV as well as other compounds having a described chemicalstructure) is present in a composition as a salt. In some embodiments,salts are obtained by reacting a compound of the disclosure with acids.In some other embodiments, pharmaceutically acceptable salts areobtained by reacting a compound of the disclosure with a base. In otherembodiments, the compounds are used as free-acid or free-base form inthe manufacture of the compositions described herein. The type of salts,include, but are not limited to: (1) acid addition salts, formed byreacting the free base form of the compound with a pharmaceuticallyacceptable: inorganic acid, such as, for example, hydrochloric acid,hydrobromic acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, metaphosphoric acid,and the like; or with an organic acid, such as, for example, aceticacid, propionic acid, hexanoic acid, cyclopentanepropionic acid,glycolic acid, pyruvic acid, lactic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid,malic acid, maleic acid, fumaric acid, trifluoroacetic acid, tartaricacid, citric acid, benzoic acid, 3-(4-hydroxybenzoyl)benzoic acid,cinnamic acid, mandelic acid, methanesulfonic acid, ethanesulfonic acid,1,2-ethanedisulfonic acid, 2-hydroxyethanesulfonic acid, benzenesulfonicacid, toluenesulfonic acid, 2-naphthalenesulfonic acid,4-methylbicyclo-[2.2.2]oct-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid, glucoheptonic acid,4,4′-methylenebis-(3-hydroxy-2-ene-1-carboxylic acid), 3-phenylpropionicacid, trimethylacetic acid, tertiary butylacetic acid, lauryl sulfuricacid, gluconic acid, glutamic acid, hydroxynaphthoic acid, salicylicacid, stearic acid, muconic acid, butyric acid, phenylacetic acid,phenylbutyric acid, valproic acid, and the like; (2) salts formed whenan acidic proton present in the parent compound is replaced by a metalion, e.g., an alkali metal ion (e.g. lithium, sodium, potassium), analkaline earth ion (e.g. magnesium, or calcium), or an aluminum ion. Insome cases, the biguanide or related heterocyclic compound describedherein are reacted with an organic base, such as, but not limited to,ethanolamine, diethanolamine, triethanolamine, tromethamine,N-methylglucamine, dicyclohexylamine, tris(hydroxymethyl)methylamine. Inother cases, the compounds described herein form salts with amino acidssuch as, but not limited to, arginine, lysine, and the like. Acceptableinorganic bases used to form salts with compounds that include an acidicproton, include, but are not limited to, aluminum hydroxide, calciumhydroxide, potassium hydroxide, sodium carbonate, sodium hydroxide, andthe like.

The term “amino acid” includes any one of the twenty naturally-occurringamino acids or the D-form of any one of the naturally-occurring aminoacids. In addition, the term “amino acid” also includes othernon-naturally occurring amino acids besides the D-amino acids, which arefunctional equivalents of the naturally-occurring amino acids. Suchnon-naturally-occurring amino acids include, for example, norleucine(“Nle”), norvaline (“Nva”), L- or D-naphthalanine, ornithine (“Orn”),homoarginine (homoArg) and others well known in the peptide art, such asthose described in M. Bodanzsky, “Principles of Peptide Synthesis,” 1stand 2nd Revised Ed., Springer-Verlag, New York, N.Y., 1984 and 1993, andStewart and Young, “Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis,” 2nd Ed., PierceChemical Co., Rockford, Ill., 1984, both of which are incorporatedherein by reference.

Amino acids and amino acid analogs can be purchased commercially (SigmaChemical Co.; Advanced Chemtech) or synthesized using methods known inthe art.

In the scope of the embodiments, compounds described herein (e.g.,compounds of formula I-V and the like) include further forms of thecompounds such as pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates (includinghydrates), amorphous phases, partially crystalline and crystalline forms(including all polymorphs), prodrugs, metabolites, N-oxides,isotopically-labeled, epimers, pure epimers, epimer mixtures,enantiomers including but not limited to single enantiomers andenantiomeric diastereomers, meso compounds, stereoisomers, racemicmixtures and diasteroisomeric mixtures. Compounds described hereinhaving one or more double bonds include cis/trans isomers, E/Z isomersand geometric isomers. Compounds described herein can be prepared as apharmaceutically acceptable salts formed when an acidic proton presentin the parent compound either is replaced by a metal ion, for example analkali metal ion, an alkaline earth ion, or an aluminum ion; orcoordinates with an organic base. In addition, the salt forms of thedisclosed compounds can be prepared using salts of the startingmaterials or intermediates.

In some embodiments, the compounds described herein include solventaddition forms or crystal forms thereof, particularly solvates orpolymorphs. Solvates contain either stoichiometric or non-stoichiometricamounts of a solvent, and may be formed during the process ofcrystallization with pharmaceutically acceptable solvents such as water,ethanol, and the like. Hydrates are formed when the solvent is water, oralcoholates are formed when the solvent is alcohol.

In some embodiments, the compounds described herein possess one or morestereocenters and each center exists independently in either the R or Sconfiguration. The compounds presented herein include alldiastereomeric, enantiomeric, and epimeric forms as well as theappropriate mixtures thereof.

In some embodiments, sites on the compounds disclosed herein aresusceptible to various metabolic reactions. Therefore incorporation ofappropriate substituents at the places of metabolic reactions willreduce, minimize or eliminate the metabolic pathways. In specificembodiments, the appropriate substituent to decrease or eliminate thesusceptibility of the aromatic ring to metabolic reactions is, by way ofexample only, a halogen, deuterium or an alkyl group.

In some embodiments, the compounds described herein areisotopically-labeled, which are identical to those recited in thevarious formulae and structures presented herein, but for the fact thatone or more atoms are replaced by an atom having an atomic mass or massnumber different from the atomic mass or mass number usually found innature. In some embodiments, one or more hydrogen atoms are replacedwith deuterium. In some embodiments, metabolic sites on the compoundsdescribed herein are deuterated. In some embodiments, substitution withdeuterium affords certain therapeutic advantages resulting from greatermetabolic stability, such as, for example, increased in vivo half-lifeor reduced dosage requirements. Throughout the specification, groups andsubstituents thereof can be chosen by one skilled in the field toprovide stable moieties and compounds.

EXAMPLES Example 1

Exemplary metformin composition and its administration.

Composition A Chemosensory Per oral solid dosage Dose B.i.d. ReceptorLigand form (mg) (mg) Daily Total Metformin HCl 50 200 400

A single oral solid dosage form (e.g., tablet, pill, capsule, and thelike) includes the listed component(s). A single dose for administrationis a set of 4 units of the oral solid dosage form (e.g., 4 tablets or 4capsules). Each of the 4 units contains identical active component(s);however each individual unit is formulated for release at a differentpH: pH 5.5, pH 6.0 or pH 6.5. One unit releases approximately 20% of itscomponents in about 15 to about 60 mins after encountering an intestinalpH of approximately 5.5, and releases the remaining 80% of itscomponents in about 2 hrs. Another unit releases approximately 20% ofits components in about 15 to about 60 mins after encountering anintestinal pH of approximately 6.0, and releases the remaining 80% ofits components in about 4 hrs. A third unit releases approximately 20%of its components in about 15 to about 60 mins after encountering anintestinal pH of approximately 6.5, and releases the remaining 80% ofits components in about 4 hrs. A fourth unit releases approximately 20%of its components in about 15 to about 60 mins after encountering anintestinal pH of approximately 6.0, and releases the remaining 80% ofits components in about 7 hrs. B.i.d. dosing occurs at mealtime,typically breakfast or the first meal of the day and dinner or the thirdmeal of the day.

Bilayer Tablet of Composition A

The biguanide or related heterocyclic compound of Composition A(metformin) are formulated into bilayer tablet cores with the excipientsas indicated in the following table (expressed in proportional units).

IR CR7 CR4 CR2 Metformin HCl 60.29 65.2 65.2 65.2 Prosol HD90 28.71 9.612.0 15.6 Pruv 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Croscarmelose Sodium 4.0 — — — MethocelK4M — 11.0 8.6 5.0 Klucel EXF 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

The IR column of the above table refers to 20% of the mass of thebilayer tablet that releases its contents in about 15 to about 60minutes. CR2, CR4, and CR7 refer to the remaining 80% of the componentsthat release over approximately 2, 4 or 7 hrs. A bilayer tablet core hasan IR compound and one of the CR, CR4 or CR7 components. The purity ofall ingredients is >99.8% and the concentrations of all impurities forall ingredients are significantly below the limits set underInternational Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) guidance.

The bilayer tablet cores are coated with the following coatingcompositions for release at the indicated pH in the following table(expressed in proportional units).

IR/CR 2 hr IR/CR 4 hr IR/CR 4 hr IR/CR 7 hr Composition pH 5.5 pH 6.0 pH6.5 pH 6.0 Eudragit L30 D55 833.4 750.06 625.05 750.06 Eudragit FS 30D 083.34 208.35 83.34 Talc 125.0 Triethylcitrate 25.0 Water 1016

Example 2

Exemplary metformin composition combined with additional chemosensoryreceptor ligands and its administration.

Composition D Chemosensory Per oral solid dosage Receptor Ligand form(mg) Dose (mg) B.i.d. Daily Total Rebaudioside A 200 800 1600 Stevioside100 400 800 Sucralose 100 400 800 Metformin HCl 25 100 200 L-Glutamine50 200 400

A single oral solid dosage form (e.g., tablet, pill, capsule, and thelike) includes the listed components. A single dose for administrationis a set of 4 units of the oral solid dosage form (e.g., 4 tablets or 4capsules). Each of the 4 units contains identical active components;however each individual unit is formulated for release at a differentpH: pH 5.5, pH 6.0 or pH 6.5. One unit releases approximately 20% of itscomponents in about 15 to about 60 mins after encountering an intestinalpH of approximately 5.5, and releases the remaining 80% of itscomponents in about 2 hrs. Another unit releases approximately 20% ofits components in about 15 to about 60 mins after encountering anintestinal pH of approximately 6.0, and releases the remaining 80% ofits components in about 4 hrs. A third unit releases approximately 20%of its components in about 15 to about 60 mins after encountering anintestinal pH of approximately 6.5, and releases the remaining 80% ofits components in about 4 hrs. A fourth unit releases approximately 20%of its components in about 15 to about 60 mins after encountering anintestinal pH of approximately 6.0, and releases the remaining 80% ofits components in about 7 hrs. B.i.d. dosing occurs at mealtime,typically breakfast or the first meal of the day and dinner or the thirdmeal of the day.

Bilayer Tablet of Composition B

The chemosensory receptor ligands of Composition B (Rebaudioside A,stevioside, sucralose, Metformin HCl and L-glutamine) are formulatedinto bilayer tablet cores with the excipients as indicated in thefollowing table (expressed in proportional units).

IR CR7 CR4 CR2 Stevioside 12.65 13.72 13.72 13.72 Sucralose 12.65 13.7213.72 13.72 Metformin HCl 3.17 3.43 3.43 3.43 L-Glutamine 6.35 6.86 6.866.86 Reb A 25.38 27.45 27.45 27.45 Prosol HD90 28.71 9.6 12.0 15.6 Pruv3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 Croscarmelose 4.0 — — — Sodium Methocel K4M — 11.0 8.65.0 Klucel EXF 4.0 4.0 4.0 4.0

The IR column of the above table refers to 20% of the mass of thebilayer tablet that releases its contents in about 15 to about 60minutes. CR2, CR4, and CR7 refer to the remaining 80% of the componentsthat release over approximately 2, 4 or 7 hrs. A bilayer tablet core hasan IR compound and one of the CR, CR4 or CR7 components. With theexception of stevioside (>90 purity), the purity of all ingredientsis >99.8% and the concentrations of all impurities for all ingredientsare significantly below the limits set under International Conference onHarmonisation (ICH) guidance.

The bilayer tablet cores are coated with the following coatingcompositions for release at the indicated pH in the following table(expressed in proportional units).

IR/CR IR/CR IR/CR IR/CR 2 hr 4 hr 4 hr 7 hr Composition pH 5.5 pH 6.0 pH6.5 pH 6.0 Eudragit L30 D55 833.4 750.06 625.05 750.06 Eudragit FS 30D 083.34 208.35 83.34 Talc 125.0 Triethylcitrate 25.0 Water 1016

Example 3

Exemplary metformin bilayer tablet composition and its administration.

Composition C Per layer Chemosensory IR Layer/Enteric Receptor Ligandlayer (mg) Total Dose (mg) B.i.d. Daily Total Metformin HCl 50/200 250500

The biguanide or related heterocyclic compound of Composition C(metformin) is formulated into bilayer tablet cores with the excipientsas indicated in the following table (expressed in proportional units).

IR CR4 Metformin HCl 60.29 65.2 Prosol HD90 28.71 12.0 Pruv 3.0 3.0Croscarmelose 4.0 — Sodium Methocel K4M — 8.6 Klucel EXF 4.0 4.0

The IR column of the above table refers to the immediate releasecomponent of the bilayer tablet that releases its contents (20%metformin) in about 15 to about 60 minutes. CR4 refer to the remaining80% of the metformin that release over approximately 4 hrs. The purityof all ingredients is >99.8% and the concentrations of all impuritiesfor all ingredients are significantly below the limits set underInternational Conference on Harmonisation (ICH) guidance.

Both the immediate release and extended release tablet cores of thebilayer tablet are coated with the one of following coating compositionsfor release at the indicated pH in the following table (expressed inproportional units).

Composition pH 5.5 pH 6.0 pH 6.5 pH 6.0 Eudragit L30 D55 833.4 750.06625.05 750.06 Eudragit FS 30D 0 83.34 208.35 83.34 Talc 125.0Triethylcitrate 25.0 Water 1016

Example 4

Plasma Absorption of Metformin is Unnecessary for EnteroendocrineProduction of Pyy, Glp-1a and Glp-1T and Reduction of Glucose andInsulin

Example 4.1 Materials and Methods

Population: Approximately 18 eligible male and female subjects, 18 to 65years of age, with a BMI of 25.0 to 35.0 kg/m², were randomized in thisstudy. To be eligible, each subject also met the following criteria: (a)was not breastfeeding; (b) had a negative pregnancy test result (humanchorionic gonadotropin, beta subunit); (c) surgically sterile,postmenopausal, or if of childbearing potential, practiced appropriatebirth control during the entire duration of the study; (d) had aphysical examination with no clinically significant abnormalities,including but not limited to the following conditions: (i) Hepaticdisease; (ii) Renal disease; (iii) gastrointestinal disease; (iv)Endocrine disorder, including diabetes; (v) Cardiovascular disease; (vi)Seizure disorder; (vii) Organ transplantation; and (viii) Chronicinfection; and (e) an ability to understand and willingness to adhere toprotocol requirements.

Formulations

A metformin formulation that results in plasma absorption, EFB0026, (500mg metformin, no coating; labeled “Metformin” in the figures) and, ametformin formulation that minimizes plasma absorption, EFB0027, (500 mgmetformin with pH 6.5 enteric coating; labeled “Re-Metformin” in thefigures) were supplied to the site as bulk tablets packaged in screw capcontainers labeled with container number and lot number. All studymedications were stored in cool and dry conditions as indicated on thelabel, and used only as directed by study personnel.

Administration

Study medication was dispensed by an unblinded site pharmacist or studypersonnel according a randomization scheme at Visits 2 and 4. At the endof Visits 2 and 4, subjects were discharged from the clinic withassigned study medications and with instructions for self-administrationuntil they returned for their next study visit (Visit 3 or 5).

Study medication was administered orally as intact tablets (swallowedwhole, not chewed or crushed), and with water. The first dose and thelast two doses of study medication for each treatment period wereadministered to subjects by qualified study site personnel (first doseat Visits 2 and 4 and last two doses at Visits 3 and 5). Subjectsself-administered the assigned study medications according toinstructions until they returned for their next study visit (Visit 3 or5).

Study site personnel contacted subjects by telephone on the second dayof dosing of each treatment period to assess compliance and adverseevents through non-directed questioning. If the subject was experiencingsignificant gastrointestinal symptoms, at the Investigator's discretion,subjects were instructed not to dose escalate. Instructions forself-administration of study medications were as follows:

-   -   Take one tablet by mouth with some water tonight before bedtime,        one tomorrow morning, and one tomorrow night before bedtime    -   Study site personnel will telephone you tomorrow (Day 2) to        remind you to increase your dose for the next day (Day 3) to two        tablets in the morning and two tablets before bedtime and, for        the following day (Day 4), two tablets on the morning before you        return later that day for your next visit    -   When you take your tablets, swallow them whole by mouth with        water, and do not crush or chew your tablets.

The procedures performed during the study are listed in the followingthree tables below.

TABLE 1 Study Plan (Protocol LCPOC6) Treatment Period 1 Treatment Period2 Baseline Day 2 of Baseline Day 2 of End of Period of Treatment End ofof Treatment 2/Study Period 1 Period Period 1 Period 2 PeriodTermination Early Evaluation Screen Visit 2 Phone Call [1] Visit 3 Visit4 Phone Call [1] Visit 5 Termination Fast (≥8 Hours Overnight) X X X X XInformed Consent X Complete Medical History X Physical Examination andHeight X Body Weight and Vital Signs X X X X X X Chemistry, Hematology,Urinalysis X X X Pregnancy Test (Females) [2] X X X Randomization XTimed Blood Sampling [3] X X X X Study Medication Administration [4] X XX X Dispense Study Medication X X Study Medication Compliance X XAssessment and Collection Dose Escalation Phone Call X X ConcomitantMedications Assessment X X X X X X [1] Phone calls to assess complianceand adverse events throt gh non-directed questioning and to remindsubjects to dose escalate [2] Pregnancy test required on all femalesubjects unless subject has had a hysterectomy or is postmenopausal. [3]GLP-1, PYY, plasma glucose, insulin, and triglycerides at Visits 2 and4; GLP-1, PYY, plasma glucose, insulin, triglycerides and metformin atVisits 3 and 5. After meal challenge at Visit 2 and Visit 4. Eveningdose on Day 4 and morning dose on Day 5 at Visit 3 and Visit 5.

TABLE 2 Schedule of Standardized Breakfast and Blood Sampling Profile atVisit 2 and Visit 4 Collect 6-mL blood Standardized Breakfast Time(minutes) samples [1] Administration [2] −15 X −5 X 0 X 30 X 45 X 60 X90 X 120 X 150 X 180 X 210 X 240 X 270 X 300 X 330 X [1] 6-mL bloodvolume total per sampling time point for assessment of PYY, GLP-1,plasma glucose, insulin, and triglycerides. [2] Subjects are to beinstructed to consume the standardized breakfast within 20 minutes.

TABLE 3 Day 5 Schedule of Dosing, Standardized Breakfast and BloodSampling Profile at Visit 3 and Visit 5 Standardized Collect 6-mL bloodBreakfast Dose Study Collect 2-mL blood Time (minutes) samples [1]Administration [2] Medication sample [3] −245 X −240 X −120 X −15 X −5 XX 0 X 30 X X 45 X X 60 X X 90 X X 120 X X 150 X X 180 X X 210 X X 240 XX 270 X X 300 X X 330 X X 360 X 420 X 480 X [1] 6-mL blood volume totalper sampling time point for assessment of PYY, GLP-1, plasma glucose,insulin, and triglycerides. [2] Subjects are to be instructed to consumethe standardized breakfast within 20 minutes. [3] 2-mL blood volumetotal per sampling time point for assessment of metformin.

Study Procedures

Visit 1 Screening Procedures

At Visit 1, subjects arrived at the clinic after fasting overnight forat least 8 hours and the following procedures were performed:

-   -   Signed Informed Consent form was obtained    -   Subject eligibility based on inclusion and exclusion criteria        was assessed    -   Complete medical history, including menopausal status (females)        was taken    -   Concomitant medications were reviewed    -   Physical examination was performed    -   Body weight and height were measured    -   Vital signs (sitting systolic and diastolic blood pressure,        heart rate, and body temperature) were measured    -   Blood sample (fasting samples) for clinical chemistry and        hematology was collected    -   Urine for urinalysis was collected    -   For female subjects of childbearing potential, serum or urine        pregnancy test was performed

Individuals were disqualified if results of any laboratory test areabnormal and clinically significant as judged by the investigator ormedical monitors. Individuals with an abnormal test may have beenre-evaluated for study enrollment within 2 weeks of Screening by havingthat test repeated once with acceptable results as judged by theinvestigator and medical monitor (or designees).

When all of the screening results were available, individuals werenotified by telephone or other means of their eligibility status. Thosewho qualified were eligible return to the clinical study site within 14days from the start of Screening to be enrolled and randomized at Visit2.

Visit 2 (Baseline of Treatment Period 1): Enrollment and Randomization

Subjects arrived at the clinic the evening prior to the standardizedmeal challenge. The following procedures were performed:

-   -   Study eligibility was confirmed    -   Treatment sequence for eligible subjects were randomized    -   Concomitant medications and adverse events were reviewed    -   Vital signs (sitting systolic and diastolic blood pressure,        heart rate, and body temperature) and body weight were measured    -   At t=0 min, subjects began consumption of the ˜1000 kcal        standardized breakfast which was completely consumed within 20        minutes    -   Fourteen 6-mL blood samples were drawn at the following        time-points relative to administration of the standardized        breakfast for PYY, GLP-1, glucose, insulin and triglycerides        (see Table 2): t=−15, −5, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210,        240, 270, 300, and 330 min    -   The first dose of randomized study medication (1 tablet) was        administered by site personnel following the last blood draw at        330 minutes    -   Subjects were dispensed with assigned study medication and        instructions to self-administer the assigned study medication        until their next clinic visit    -   Subjects returned to the study site with the remainder of their        study medications on the fourth day of the treatment period for        Visit 3

On Day 2 of the treatment period, study site personnel made a scheduledtelephone call to address any questions, to evaluate study medicationadministration, and to remind the subject to increase the dose on Day 3of treatment.

Visit 3 (End of Treatment Period 1)

Subjects arrived at the clinic the evening prior to the standardizedmeal challenge on the fourth day of the first treatment period, beforethe evening dose. The following procedures were performed at Visit 3:

-   -   Concomitant medications and adverse events were reviewed    -   Vital signs (sitting systolic and diastolic blood pressure,        heart rate, and body temperature) and body weight were measured    -   Dinner for the fourth day of the first treatment period was        provided to subjects at the study site    -   The evening dose for the fourth day of the treatment period was        administered after dinner at the study site    -   All unused study medications from subjects after their evening        dose were collected    -   At t=−240 min the next morning, subjects were administered the        last dose of assigned study medication for the first treatment        period    -   At t=0 min, subjects began consumption of the ˜1000 kcal        standardized breakfast which should be completely consumed        within 20 minutes    -   Blood was drawn at t=−245, −120, −15, −5, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120,        150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, 330, 360, 420, and 480 min        relative to administration of the standardized breakfast, for        metformin, and PYY, GLP-1, glucose, insulin and triglycerides        (see Table 3 for details)    -   Lunch may have been provided to subjects after the 360 min blood        draw    -   Subjects were discharged from the site after finishing Visit 3        procedures, and returned to the site for Visit 4 after a washout        period of at least 7 but no more than 14 days for baseline        assessment of Treatment Period 2

Visit 4 (Baseline of Treatment Period 2)

Subjects arrived at the clinic the evening prior to the standardizedmeal challenge. The following procedures were performed:

-   -   Concomitant medications and adverse events were reviewed    -   Vital signs (sitting systolic and diastolic blood pressure,        heart rate, and body temperature) and body weight were measured    -   At t=0 min, subjects began consumption of the ˜1000 kcal        standardized breakfast, which was completely consumed within 20        minutes    -   Fourteen 6-mL blood samples were drawn at the following        time-points relative to administration of the standardized        breakfast for PYY, GLP-1, glucose, insulin and triglycerides        (see Table 2): t=−15, −5, 30, 45, 60, 90, 120, 150, 180, 210,        240, 270, 300, and 330 min    -   The first dose of randomized study medication for the second        treatment period (1 tablet) was administered by site personnel        following the last blood draw at 330 minutes    -   Subjects were dispensed the assigned study medication for the        second treatment period with instructions to self-administer the        study medication until their next clinic visit    -   Subjects returned to the study site with the remainder of their        study medication on the fourth day of the second treatment        period for Visit 5

On Day 2 of the treatment period, study site personnel made a scheduledtelephone call to address any questions, to evaluate study medicationadministration, and to remind the subject to increase the dose on Day 3of treatment.

Visit 5 (End of Treatment Period 2): Study Termination

Subjects arrived at the clinic before the evening dose of the fourth dayof the second treatment period. The following procedures were performedat Visit 5:

-   -   Concomitant medications and adverse events were reviewed    -   Vital signs (sitting systolic and diastolic blood pressure,        heart rate, and body temperature) and body weight were measured    -   Dinner for the fourth day of the second treatment period was        provided to subjects at the study site    -   The evening dose for Day 4 of the second treatment period was        administered after dinner at the study site    -   All unused study medications from subjects after their evening        dose were collected    -   Blood sample for clinical chemistry, hematology, and serum        pregnancy test (females of childbearing potential) was collected    -   Urine for urinalysis was collected    -   At t=−240 min the next morning, subjects were administered the        last dose of assigned study medication for the second treatment        period    -   At t=0 min, subjects began consumption of the ˜1000 kcal        standardized breakfast which was completely consumed within 20        minutes    -   Blood was collected at t=−245, −120, −15, −5, 30, 45, 60, 90,        120, 150, 180, 210, 240, 270, 300, 330, 360, 420, and 480 min        relative to administration of the standardized breakfast, for        metformin, and PYY, GLP-1, glucose, insulin and triglycerides        (see Appendix 3 for details)    -   Lunch may have been provided after the 360 min blood draw

Subjects who complete all study procedures at Visit 5 were consideredstudy completers.

Early Termination

Subjects who withdrew from the study prior to completion of Visit 5completed early termination procedures in a timely manner, as follows:

-   -   Review of adverse events (AEs) and concomitant medications    -   Measurement of body weight    -   Measurement of vital signs (sitting systolic and diastolic blood        pressure, heart rate, and body temperature)    -   Collection of used and unused study medication    -   Blood sample collection for clinical chemistry, hematology, and        serum pregnancy test (females of childbearing potential)    -   Collection of urine samples for urinalysis

Pharmacodynamic Assessments

Blood samples were collected according to the schedules presented inTables 1, 2, and 3, and as described above. Fasting and postprandialplasma concentrations of gut hormones GLP-1 and PYY, as well asconcentrations of plasma glucose, insulin, and triglycerides weremeasured by analytical methods. Blood samples from each visit wasprocessed and stored at −70° C. for future exploratory analysis ofadditional hormones.

Pharmacokinetic Assessments

Blood samples were collected according to the schedules presented inTables 1, 2, and 3, and as described above. Plasma metforminconcentrations were measured by analytical methods. Blood samples fromeach visit was processed and stored at −70° C. for future exploratoryanalysis of additional hormones.

Clinical Laboratory Evaluations

Samples were collected according to the schedules presented in Tables 1,2 and 3, and in the preceding section.

Chemistry

Chemistry assessments included the following: urea nitrogen, creatinine,total protein, albumin, uric acid, total bilirubin, alkalinephosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, gammaglutamyl transpeptidase, creatine phosphokinase, glucose, sodium,potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, phosphorus, lactate, and calcium (orother routine chemistry panels as approved by the sponsor).

Hematology

Hematology assessments included the following: red cell count,hemoglobin, hematocrit, white cell count, platelets, differential count,mean cell volume, mean corpuscular hemoglobin, and mean corpuscularhemoglobin concentration (or other routine hematology assessments asapproved by the sponsor).

Urinalysis

Urinalysis assessments included the following: pH, specific gravity,glucose, blood, ketones, and protein (or other routine urinalysis asapproved by the sponsor).

Pregnancy Testing

All female subjects, regardless of childbearing status (unless subjectis post-menopausal or has had a hysterectomy), provided blood or urinefor pregnancy tests. Study medication was not administered unless anegative result is obtained.

Vital Signs and Other Observations Related to Safety

Clinically significant abnormalities in vital signs and otherobservations related to safety were followed up by the investigator andevaluated with additional tests if necessary, until the underlying causeis diagnosed or resolution occurred.

Vital Signs

Vital sign measurements included sitting systolic and diastolic bloodpressure, heart rate, and body temperature. Vital signs were measuredafter the subject rested for approximately 5 minutes and with thesubject in a sitting position. The blood pressure measurement wasrepeated after at least 30 seconds and the average of the two readingsrecorded.

Example 4.2: Results

The study design and event timeline are shown in FIGS. 1-2 . Shown inTables 4 and 5 below are the resulting subject disposition andpopulation (Table 4) and the demographic and baseline characteristics of18 subjects (Table 5).

TABLE 4 Subject Disposition and Population Parameter Result Randomized18 Completed 17 Withdrawal (positive drug test) 1 Evaluable Population16

-   -   2 subjects excluded from evaluable population; 1 withdrawn and 1        could not complete test meal at end of Treatment Period 2

TABLE 5 Demographic and Baseline Characteristics (n = 18) ParameterResult Gender (M/F) 9/9 Mean Age (yr) ± SD   44 ± 10 Race 9 caucasian, 7hispanic, 2 black Mean BMI (kg/m2) ± SD 29.3 ± 2.8

FIG. 3 demonstrates that ingestion of Re-Metformin minimizes adsorptionof Metformin in the plasma compared to Metformin. The area under thecurve (AUC) and Cmax values for Re-Metformin and Metformin are providedin Table 6 below.

Metformin Plasma Pharmacokinetics LS Mean Ratio ReMet/Metformin P ValueAbs AUC 0.83 0.02 Abs Cmax 0.73 0.003 Incremental Cmax 0.45 <0.001

FIG. 4A-C shows an increase in meal-enhanced gut hormones in 16 subjectsafter treatment of Re-Metformin comparable to that of Metformin,although treatment with Re-Metformin minimized the systemic level ofmetformin compared to Metformin (FIG. 3 ). Additionally, FIGS. 5A-B showa reduction in meal-enhanced glucose and insulin after treatment withRe-Metformin in 16 subjects comparable to that of Metformin. FIG. 6shows that treatment with Re-Metformin results in a similar PYY responseas Metformin, but has a lower systemic exposure. FIGS. 7A-B show thatthe Metformin PK/PD relationship was dissociable in at least onepatient.

Example 5

Evaluate Efficacy of Compounds Formulated for Release in the LowerIntestine, Including Those which May be Accompanied by Poor Absorption.

Key measurements to be taken include plasma concentrations of testcompounds, influence on GLP-1 levels, influence on PYY levels,differences in glucose levels from an acute glucose tolerance test aswell as insulin levels and differences in composition of intestinalmicrobiota as measured by 16S RNA based sequencing or chip analysis.

Materials and Methods (adapted from: Dao T-M A, Waget A, Klopp P, SerinoM, Vachoux C, Pechere L, Drucker D J, Champion S, Barthélemy S, Barra Y,Burcelin R, Sérée E. Resveratrol Increases Glucose Induced GLP-1Secretion in Mice: A Mechanism which Contributes to the Glycemic ControlPLoS One 2011; 6(6): e20700).

Representative Test Compound Formulation and Dosage

Two versions of the representative test compounds may be prepared,namely a regular version of 200 micron particle size solid material anda coated version, designed to release material in the lower intestine atpH 6.5, of 200 micron particle size. Each is formulated with anappropriate carrier (including but not limited to polysorbate 20 andpolyglyceryl-3-dioleate). For some experiments the representative testcompound is mixed with the diet for animal experiments at a dose rangingfrom of 1 mg/Kg/day to 60 mgs/kg/day. For other experiments a doseranging from 1 mg/kg to 60 mgs/kg was formulated for delivery by oralgavage in either a solution or a as a uniform suspension of fineparticles.

In addition, a 500 mg GLUCOPHAGE® XR (metformin hydrochloride)Extended-Release tablet with a target 6% enteric coating at pH 6.5 forrelease in the lower intestine is evaluated; as compared to standardnon-coated GLUCOPHAGE® XR (metformin hydrochloride) Extended-Releasetablet.

Animals and Treatment

General Methods

Eight week-old male C57Bl/6J wild type mice (Charles River are housedunder specific pathogen-free conditions in individual ventilated cageswith a 12-/12-hour light (10 p.m.)/dark (10 a.m.) cycle and with freeaccess to water and food. Mice are maintained on a normal chow diet(energy content: 12% fat, 28% protein, and 60% carbohydrate), or ahigh-fat diet (energy content: roughly 72% fat comprising corn oil andlard, 28% protein, and, 1% carbohydrate) for five weeks. This dietinduces diabetes before the onset of obesity (see, Cani P D, Amar J,Iglesias M A, Poggi M, Knauf C, et al. (2007) “Metabolic endotoxemiainitiates obesity and insulin resistance.” Diabetes 56: 1761-1772; CaniP D, Bibiloni R, Knauf C, Waget A, Neyrinck A M, et al. (2008) “Changesin gut microbiota control metabolic endotoxemia-induced inflammation inhigh-fat diet-induced obesity and diabetes in mice.” Diabetes 57:1470-1481; Knauf C, Cani P D, Ait-Belgnaoui A, Benani A, Dray C, et al.(2008) “Brain glucagon-like peptide 1 signaling controls the onset ofhigh-fat diet-induced insulin resistance and reduces energyexpenditure.” Endocrinology 149: 4768-4777; Cani P D, Neyrinck A M, FavaF, Knauf C, Burcelin R G, et al. (2007) “Selective increases ofbifidobacteria in gut microflora improve high-fat-diet-induced diabetesin mice through a mechanism associated with endotoxaemia.” Diabetologia50: 2374-2383.) Food intake, body weight, and glucose tolerance aremeasured by standard methods as previously described (Riant E, Waget A,Cogo H, Arnal J, Burcelin R, et al. (2009) “Estrogens protect againsthigh-fat diet-induced insulin resistance and glucose intolerance inmice.” Endocrinology 150: 2109-2117). All animal experimental proceduresare carried out in an AAALAC qualified facility and are further approvedby the local animal ethical committee. Statistical significance wastypically achieved by having n=6 or greater in each arm of each study,including controls.

Acute Experiments

For acute experiments the representative test compounds are formulatedfor oral gavage as described above and are administered twice daily overa period of24 to 48 hrs.

Chronic Experiments

For chronic experiments the representative test compounds are formulatedin chow as described above and are administered with chow on a twicedaily basis over a 28 day period. Where analysis of intestinalmicrobiota are part of the protocol, faeces are collected from eachmouse in all arms of study at end of day 1, end of day 28 and conservedfor later analysis/shipping by flash freezing at −80° C. In addition, atthe end of the experiment, caeca are dissected from each mouse,collected and conserved for later analysis/shipping by flash freezing at−80° C.

Oral Glucose Tolerance Test and Insulin Assays

An oral glucose tolerance test (OGTT, 2 g/kg of glucose) is performed inmice previously fasted for 6 h after acute or chronic treatment. Bloodglucose concentrations are monitored from the tip of the tail vein witha standard portable glucometer (Onetouch from Life Scan or equivalent)at −30, 0, 30, 60, 90 and 120 min after oral glucose administration, aspreviously described. Area under the curve (AUC) (30-90) is calculatedfor each group of mice. Plasma insulin concentration is determined byELISA (for example Mercodia, Uppsala, Sweden) by using 10 μl of plasmafrom normal chow and HFD representative test article treated mice.

GLP-1 Measurement in Plasma from Portal Vein Blood Samples

For plasma portal vein GLP-1 quantification, mice (in fed state) arerapidly anesthetized by intra-peritoneal injection (0.1 ml/10 mg bodyweight) of Ketamine (Vibrac) and Xylazine hydrochloride 2% RompunH(Bayer) in sodium chloride (0.9%; 2:1:7 v/v/v), dissected and the portalvein blood samples are collected in EDTA tubes (Sarstedt, Numbrecht,Germany) containing a cocktail of enzyme inhibitors including a DPP-4inhibitor (Linco Research, St Charles, Mo., USA). Concentrations ofGLP-1 (7-36) amide are determined using an ELISA method(Glucagon-Like-Peptide-1 active ELISA kit, Millipore).

PK Measurements by LC-MS or LC-MS/MS

An appropriately sensitive assay is established for each of therepresentative test compounds in either plasma or whole blood, usingeither a PE Sciex 4000, a PE Sciex 5000 (triple quadrupole tandem massspectrometers) or a Thermo LCQ ion trap mass spectrometer. Blood samplesare collected from the tail vein of each mouse at defined intervals onday 1 of the studies (both chronic and acute) and day 28 of the studies(chronic only), mixed with a cocktail of enzyme inhibitors plus EDTAthen analyzed directly (LC/MS/MS).

RNA Extraction and Real Time PCR

Total RNA was isolated from tissues using Trizol reagent (LifeTechnologies) and quantified by NanoDrop (NanoDrop technologies Inc.).Total RNA (1 μg) is reverse transcribed using Moloney murine leukemiavirus reverse transcriptase (Life Technologies) and random primers at42° C. for 1 h. The expression of target genes is determined using theStratagene Mx 3005p. The mRNA concentration of target genes isnormalized to levels of β2-actin mRNA and the results are expressed asrelative expression levels (REL). The data are quantified by the methodof 2-DDCt.

Intestinal Microflora Characterization

Total DNA is isolated from caecum using Trizol reagent (LifeTechnologies) and is amplified by PCR, targeting the V3 region of the16S rRNA gene using the universal bacterial primers HDA1-GC and HDA2(Table 1). Each reaction mixture (25 μl) contains 4 μl of DNA diluted to50 ng/μl, deoxynucleoside triphosphate (Sigma-Aldrich) at aconcentration of 200 mM, 0.3 μM of each primer, and 0.07 μl of Taqpolymerase (Sigma-Aldrich). The following amplification program is used:94° C. for 5 min, 30 cycles consisting of 94° C. for 30 s, 55° C. for 45s, and 72° C. for 60 s, and 30 min at 72° C. Denaturing gradient gelelectrophoresis (DGGE) is then performed by using DGGE 2401 systems (CBS& Scientific Co.) and 8% polyacrylamide gels with a 35-55% gradient ofurea (99.0-100.5%—Sigma-Aldrich) and formamide (99+%—Sigma-Aldrich),which increases in the direction of electrophoresis. Electrophoreticruns are in a Tris-acetate-EDTA buffer (40 mmol/1 Tris, 20 mmol/l aceticacid, and 1 mmol/1 EDTA) at 60 V and 60° C. for 18 h. Gels were stainedwith SYBR Safe 16 (Life Technologies) for 30 min, rinsed with deionizedwater, then scanned and analyzed by using Typhoon 9400 Variable ModeImager (Amersham Biosciences). Hierarchical clustering is performed byusing Permutmatrix 1.9.3.0 (Caraux G, Pinloche S (2005) “PermutMatrix: agraphical environment to arrange gene expression profiles in optimallinear order.” Bioinformatics 21: 1280-1281).

Weight Loss

Treated and untreated animals will be weighed periodically to measureweight gain or loss of the treated animals compared to the controlgroup.

Statistical Analysis

Results are expressed as means±SEM. Statistical analyses is performedusing GraphPad Prism version 5.0 for windows (GraphPad Software, SanDiego, Calif.; www.graphpad.com). The level of significance is set atp<0.05.

Exemplary test compounds representative of Formulas I, IA, II, III andIV are tested in the above assays as follows. For example:

Example 5

A 12-Week, Randomized, Double-Blind, Placebo-Controlled, Parallel-Group,Multicenter Study to Determine the Safety and Efficacy of Twice DailyAdministration of EFB0027 in Subjects with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus

The experiments described in Example 5 will (1) compare the effect onglycemic control, as assessed by HbA1c, of EFB0027 administered twotimes a day (BID) before the morning and evening meals to placebo for 12weeks in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus, (2) assess the safetyand tolerability of the range of doses of EFB0027 administered BID for12 weeks in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus, (3) assessdose-dependence of effect on HbA1c of EFB0027 administered BID for 12weeks in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellitus, and (4) compareEFB0027, EFB0026, a combination of EFB0026 and EFB0027, and placeboadministered BID for 12 weeks in subjects with type 2 diabetes mellituson the following:

-   -   Metformin pharmacokinetics (PK)    -   Change from baseline in HbA1c over time    -   Proportion of subjects who achieve HbA1c of <7% at 12 weeks    -   Body weight    -   Change from baseline in fasting plasma glucose, insulin,        triglycerides, peptide YY (PYY), and glucagon-like peptide 1        (GLP-1) over time

Example 5.1: Materials and Methods Example 5.1.1: Study Design

There will be 8 study visits; one screening visit (Visit 1) followed by2 lead-in stabilization period visits (Visits 2 and 3) and 5 randomizedtreatment period visits (Visits 4 through 8).

Subjects will administer EFB0026 500 mg BID (1000 mg/day) for 2 weeksfollowed by 1000 mg BID (2000 mg/day) for 4 weeks during thesingle-blind, 6-week lead-in stabilization period.

At Visit 4, each of approximately 250 subjects will be randomized to oneof 5 treatment groups in the proportion of 1:1:1:1:1. Randomization isto be stratified by Visit 3 (Week −1) HbA1c.

Treatment Groups Treatment Group N Treatment* A 50 Placebo BID B 50EFB0026 500 mg BID C 50 EFB0027 500 mg BID D 50 EFB0026 1000 mg BID E 50EFB0027 1000 mg BID F 50 EFB0026 500 mg plus EFB0027 1000 mg BID*EFB0026 = metformin HCl tablets (nonenteric-coated); EFB0027 =metformin HCl tablets with a pH 6.5 enteric coating (enteric-coated)Treatment groups B and C will include 2 placebo tablets per dose andtreatment groups D and E will include 1 placebo tablet per dose topreserve the blind.

At lead-in stabilization period and randomized treatment period visits(Visits 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8):

-   -   Subjects will arrive at the study clinic after having fasted        overnight for at least 10 hours    -   Subjects will be instructed not to take their morning dose of        investigational product (IP) on the days of study visits until        after the fasting blood draws are completed. The morning dose        will be administered at the study site on the days of study        visits (Visits 2 through 7 only)    -   A lipid panel will be collected at Screening, Day 1 and Week 12        (Visits 1, 3 and 7)    -   Fasting blood samples (one 6-mL sample and one 2-mL sample) will        be collected for measurement of plasma metformin, glucose,        insulin, GLP-1 and PYY at all study visits. Triglycerides will        also be assessed at visits where a full lipid panel is not        scheduled (Visits 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7)    -   HbA1c will be measured at Screening, Week −6, Week −1, Day 1,        and Weeks 4, 8, and 12 (Visits 1, 2, 3, 4, 6, 7 and 8)

If a subject's underlying diabetes is inadequately controlled onrandomized treatment and if the subject is experiencing hyperglycemiathat is a significant worsening from the baseline condition (asindicated by an HbA1c value ≥10% or increase by more than 1.0% from theVisit 3 value), the subject will be withdrawn from the study andadministered appropriate alternate therapy.

Example 5.1.2: Visit Structure

The study will consist of 8 study visits with one screening visit (Visit1), 2 lead-in stabilization period visits (Visits 2 and 3) and 5randomized treatment period visits (Visits 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8). Visit 1procedures may be conducted over >1 day. The interval separating thebeginning of Visit 1 procedures and Visit 2 will be ≤28 days. Visits 2and 3 (Weeks −6 and −1) will be scheduled at −6 weeks ±3 days and −1week ±3 days relative to Visit 4 (Day 1). Visits 5, 6, 7 and 8 will bescheduled at 2, 4, 8 and 12 weeks ±3 days relative to Visit 4 (Day 1).Subjects may be discharged from the clinic after each visit's proceduresare completed. Subjects will have completed the study after finishingVisit 8 procedures.

Example 5.1.3: Study Duration

Total study duration will be between 132 to 163 days depending on thenumber of intervening days between study visits.

Example 5.1.3: Study Population

Each subject of the study will meet the following criteria:

-   -   1. Is 18 to 65 years old at Screening (Visit 1).    -   2. Is diagnosed with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus and is treated        with diet and exercise alone, metformin alone, DPP-4 inhibitor        alone, or a combination regimen of metformin with a DPP-4        inhibitor (stable regimen for a minimum of 2 months at Visit 1).    -   3. Has an HbA1c 6.5 to 9.0% (inclusive) at Visit 1 and Visit 3.    -   4. Has serum creatinine below the upper limit of normal at Visit        1 and an estimated creatinine clearance above 80 using the        Crockroft and Gault equation (CrCl=[(140−age)×body weight in        kg]/(serum creatinine×72)×(0.85 for females).    -   5. Has a BMI of 25.0 kg/m² to 45.0 kg/m², inclusive, at Visit 1.    -   6. Has a stable body weight, i.e., not varying by >10% for at        least 6 months prior to Visit 1 as documented by the        investigator.    -   7. Is male, or is female and meets all of the following        criteria:        -   a. Not breastfeeding        -   b. Negative pregnancy test result (human chorionic            gonadotropin, beta subunit) at Visit 1 (Screening)        -   c. Surgically sterile, postmenopausal, or if of childbearing            potential, must practice and be willing to continue to            practice appropriate birth control during the entire            duration of the study    -   8. Has a physical examination with no clinically significant        abnormalities as judged by the investigator.    -   9. Has a fasting glucose concentration of <240 mg/dL at Visit 1.    -   10. Either is not treated with or has been on a stable treatment        regimen with any of the following medications for a minimum of 3        months prior to Visit 1 (Screening):        -   a. Hormone replacement therapy (female subjects)        -   b. Oral contraceptives (female subjects)        -   c. Antihypertensive agents        -   d. Lipid-lowering agents        -   e. Thyroid replacement therapy        -   f. Antidepressant agents    -   11. Is willing and able to follow study procedures.    -   12. Is able to read, understand, and sign the Informed Consent        Form (ICF) and an Authorization to Use and Disclose Protected        Health Information form (consistent with Health Insurance        Portability and Accountability Act of 1996 [HIPAA] legislation,        answer the study questions, communicate with the investigator,        and understand and comply with protocol requirements.

Subjects who meet any of the following criteria will be excluded:

-   -   1. Has a clinically significant medical condition that could        potentially affect study participation and/or personal        well-being, as judged by the investigator, including but not        limited to the following conditions:        -   a. Hepatic disease        -   b. Renal disease        -   c. Gastrointestinal disease        -   d. Endocrine disorder except diabetes        -   e. Cardiovascular disease        -   f. Seizure disorder        -   g. Organ transplantation        -   h. Chronic infection (e.g., tuberculosis, human            immunodeficiency virus, hepatitis B virus, or hepatitis C            virus)    -   2. Has any chronic disease requiring medication that has been        adjusted in the past 90 days (subjects may take acute        intermittent over-the-counter medications such as Tylenol, if        needed).    -   3. Has any drug treatment that affects gastric pH (prescription        or over-the-counter), including any antacids or medications such        as Rolaids or Pepcid within 2 days of Visit 1 (Screening).    -   4. Has renal disease or renal dysfunction (e.g., as suggested by        serum creatinine levels ≥1.5 mg/dL [males], 21.4 mg/dL [females]        or abnormal creatinine clearance).    -   5. Has known hypersensitivity or allergies to metformin        hydrochloride or any component of study treatment.    -   6. Has clinical laboratory test (clinical chemistry, hematology,        or urinalysis) abnormalities other than those expected in        subjects with diabetes and judged by the investigator to be        clinically significant at Visit 1 (Screening).    -   7. Has physical, psychological, or historical finding that, in        the investigator's opinion, would make the subject unsuitable        for the study.    -   8. Currently abuses drugs or alcohol or has a history of abuse        that in the investigator's opinion would cause the individual to        be noncompliant with study procedures.    -   9. Has donated blood within 2 months of Visit 1 (Screening) or        is planning to donate blood during the study.    -   10. Has used insulin within 3 months of Visit 1 (Screening).    -   11. Has received GLP-1 receptor agonists and/or        thiazolidinedione treatment within 6 months of Visit 1        (Screening).    -   12. Has received Furosemide, Nifedipine, thiazides or other        diuretics, corticosteroids, cationic drugs, or thyroid products        within 6 months of Visit 1 (Screening).    -   13. Has had a major surgery or a blood transfusion within 6        months of Visit 1 (Screening).    -   14. Has received any investigational drug within one month (or        five half-lives of the investigational drug, whichever is        greater) of Visit 1 (Screening).    -   15. Is an immediate family member (spouse, parent, child, or        sibling; biological or legally adopted) of personnel directly        affiliated with the study at the clinical study site, or is        directly affiliated with the study at the clinical study site.    -   16. Is employed by Elcelyx Therapeutics, Inc (Elcelyx) (that is        an employee, temporary contract worker, or designee responsible        for the conduct of the study).

Once screened and qualified for entry, subject will be instructed asfollows: Fast for at least 10 hours (no food or beverage except water)prior to each visit

Take no new prescription medications or over-the-counter preparationswithout prior approval of the investigator (who may contact the sponsorfor consultation).

Take no anti-diabetic medications during the study other than theinvestigational product. Discontinue use of any DPP-4 inhibitors orprescribed metformin prior to enrollment (Visit 2)

Take no caffeine before (at least 10 hours) or during study visits

On the days of study visits do not take the dose of investigationalproduct at home before the visit

Bring all previously dispensed empty, partially used or unusedcontainers of investigational product to each visit

Do not begin a diet or weight loss program during the study

Avoid strenuous exercise and alcohol 24 hours prior to each scheduledvisit.

Refrain from smoking during study visits (i.e., no smoking until allvisit procedures are completed)

Example 5.1.4: Investigational Products

-   -   Placebo    -   EFB0026: 500 mg metformin HCl tablets (nonenteric-coated)    -   EFB0027: 500 mg metformin HCl tablets with a pH 6.5 enteric        coating (enteric-coated)

Example 5.1.5: Study Methods

EFB0026 500 mg BID (1000 mg/day) will be administered for 2 weeksfollowed by 1000 mg BID (2000 mg/day) for 4 weeks during the lead-instabilization period. Randomized treatment will be administered BID over12 weeks. HbA1c, metformin PK, fasting glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY,lipids, and body weight will be collected at scheduled time points.Efficacy assessments will be of HbA1c and body weight, pharmacokineticassessments will be of plasma metformin, and pharmacodynamic assessmentswill be of fasting glucose, insulin, GLP-1, PYY and lipids. Safety willbe assessed through the monitoring of adverse events, byelectrocardiogram, and clinical chemistry.

Example 5.1.6: Statistical Considerations

Analysis populations will be selected and described in the StatisticalAnalysis Plan

Study endpoints include HbA_(1c), metformin PK, fasting glucose,insulin, GLP-1, PYY, lipids, and body weight

Demographic and baseline characteristics will be summarizeddescriptively

While certain embodiments of the present invention have been shown anddescribed herein, it will be obvious to those skilled in the art thatsuch embodiments are provided by way of example only. Numerousvariations, changes, and substitutions will now occur to those skilledin the art without departing from the invention. It should be understoodthat various alternatives to the embodiments of the invention describedherein may be employed in practicing the invention. It is intended thatthe following claims define the scope of the invention and that methodsand structures within the scope of these claims and their equivalents becovered thereby.

What is claimed is:
 1. A method for treating diabetes in a patient inneed thereof comprising administering to said patient a pharmaceuticaldosage form comprising metformin or a salt thereof, wherein saidpharmaceutical dosage form is adapted to have an onset of release ofsaid metformin or a salt thereof downstream of the duodenum and toprovide at least 20% less relative bioavailability of metformin asmeasured by plasma area under curve (AUC) resulting from administrationof said pharmaceutical dosage form compared to an immediate releasecomposition having the same amount of said metformin or a salt thereof,and wherein the daily dose of said metformin or a salt thereof isbetween 1500 mg and 2000 mg of metformin.
 2. The method of claim 1,wherein the circulating plasma concentration of metformin resulting fromadministration of said pharmaceutical dosage form is below 1.0 μg/mL. 3.The method of claim 1, wherein the circulating plasma concentration ofmetformin resulting from administration of said pharmaceutical dosageform is below 0.5 μg/mL.
 4. The method of claim 1, wherein thecirculating plasma concentration of metformin resulting fromadministration of said pharmaceutical dosage form is below 0.25 μg/mL.5. The method of claim 1, wherein said pharmaceutical dosage form isadapted to provide at least 30% less relative bioavailability ofmetformin compared to an immediate release composition having the sameamount of said metformin or a salt thereof.
 6. The method of claim 1,wherein said pharmaceutical dosage form is adapted to provide at least40% less relative bioavailability of metformin compared to an immediaterelease composition having the same amount of said metformin or a saltthereof.
 7. The method of claim 1, wherein said pharmaceutical dosageform is adapted to provide at least 50% less relative bioavailability ofmetformin compared to an immediate release composition having the sameamount of said metformin or a salt thereof.
 8. The method of claim 1,wherein said pharmaceutical dosage form is adapted to have an onset ofrelease of said metformin or a salt thereof downstream of the jejunum.9. The method of claim 1, wherein said pharmaceutical dosage form isadapted to have an onset of release of said metformin or a salt thereofdownstream of the ileum.
 10. The method of claim 1, wherein saidmetformin or a salt thereof is metformin hydrochloride.
 11. The methodof claim 1, wherein said pharmaceutical dosage form has an onset ofrelease of said metformin or a salt thereof at about pH 6.0.
 12. Themethod of claim 1, wherein said pharmaceutical dosage form has an onsetof release of said metformin or a salt thereof at about pH 6.5.
 13. Themethod of claim 1, wherein said pharmaceutical dosage form has an onsetof release of said metformin or a salt thereof at about pH 7.0.